Nanotechnology and its intervention in animal nutrition: A review

Introduction

Nanotechnology refers to the science and engineering of materials at the nanoscale (1-100 nm), where materials exhibit unique physical, chemical, and biological properties that differ significantly from their bulk counterparts (Gelaye, 2024) [1] . The concept was first introduced by Richard Feynman in 1959 and later termed "nanotechnology" by Norio Taniguchi in 1974. It is an advanced and rapidly emerging field with significant potential to transform agriculture and livestock sectors worldwide (Marappan et al., 2017) [2] . This technology focuses on reducing materials to extremely small particle sizes, often down to a few nanometers (Loghman et al., 2012; Ognik et al., 2016) [3,4] . Various nanostructures such as nanotubes, nanofibres, nanorods, nanoparticles, and thin films have been extensively studied to understand their properties and potential applications (Pundir, 2015) [5] . Among these, nanoparticles are the most widely researched. Technologies including nanosensors, nanomaterials, microfluidic systems, and bioanalytical devices are being utilized to improve animal health, productivity, reproduction, as well as disease diagnosis, treatment, and prevention (Kroubi et al., 2010; Tarafdar et al., 2013) [6,7] . With advancements in production techniques, nanotechnology is expected to bring revolutionary changes to the livestock industry (Fesseha et al., 2020) [8] . In animal nutrition, nanotechnology is increasingly being explored as a tool to improve feed utilization, enhance growth performance, and optimize production efficiency (Hanif et al., 2024) [9] . Nanotechnology is used in animal feed in the form of nanominerals, nanoenzymes, as well as additional additives (Fesseha et al., 2020; Marappan et al., 2017; Pundir, 2015) [2,5,8] . Conventional feed additives often suffer from poor bioavailability due to low solubility, antagonistic interactions among nutrients, and inefficient absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. This results in higher supplementation levels and increased excretion of nutrients into the environment. Nanotechnology offers solutions to these challenges by reducing particle size, increasing surface area, and improving the interaction of nutrients with biological systems. The incorporation of nanomaterials into feed or water has been shown to improve the quality of animal products and the efficiency of production systems (Hill & Li, 2007) [10] .

Types of Nanoparticles

Based on their chemical properties, nanoparticles can be classified into organic nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles, nano-emulsions, nano-dispersions, and nanoclays. Organic nanoparticles are derived from biological molecules such as proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. These nanoparticles can modify feed functionality while enhancing its nutritional value. They are capable of encapsulating nutrients and facilitating their transport through the gastrointestinal tract into the bloodstream; such systems are commonly referred to as nano-capsules. Due to their improved bioavailability, these delivery systems enable efficient nutrient release without altering the taste or appearance of the feed. Encapsulated nano-materials are incorporated into feeds in forms such as micelles and liposomes, and are also used in packaging systems as biosensors, identification markers, shelf-life enhancers, and antimicrobial agents. Inorganic nanoparticles consist of mineral-based components at the nanoscale and are already approved for certain applications in feed and packaging systems. Their applications in the feed and packaging industries include the use of nano-clay platelets for improved packaging properties, as well as minerals such as silicon dioxide, calcium, magnesium, and silver nanoparticles, which are utilized for water purification, antimicrobial packaging, and enhanced feed storage. Nanoemulsions, on the other hand, are designed to stabilize and deliver active compounds by encapsulating functional feed ingredients either at the oil-water interface or within a continuous phase, thereby improving their stability and bioavailability. (Marappan et al., 2017) [2] . Each type of nanoparticle has specific applications depending on its properties and intended use, making nanotechnology a versatile tool in animal nutrition.

Synthesis of Nanoparticles

Nanoparticles can be synthesized using top-down and bottom-up approaches. The top-down approach involves breaking down bulk materials into nanoparticles using mechanical methods such as ball milling. This method is simple but may result in uneven particle sizes. The bottomup approach involves the assembly of nanoparticles from atoms or molecules, providing better control over size and structure. There are three kinds of approaches for the production of nanoparticles. These methods include physical, chemical, and biological methods. Depending upon the need, the methods for synthesis of nanoparticles are selected. Every method has some advantages as well as disadvantages; the production method is selected based upon the availability of the facilities. Physical methods are suitable for small-scale production were as chemical methods are selected where the cost of production is a concern. Biological methods have different significance. (Krishnappa et al., 2018; Winterer et al., 2003) [11,12] . Chemical methods such as sol-gel and hydrothermal synthesis are widely used, while biological or green synthesis using plant extracts and microorganisms is gaining popularity due to its eco-friendly nature (Patil et al., 2021) [13] . Green synthesis is particularly important as it reduces the use of toxic chemicals and promotes sustainable production of nanoparticles.

Mechanism of Action of Nanoparticles

Chen et al., 2006 [14] specified the different mechanisms of action of nanoparticles as follows:  Nanoparticles increase the surface area, allowing improved interaction with biological systems.  They extend the duration of compounds in the gastrointestinal tract.  They minimize the effect of intestinal clearance mechanisms.  They can penetrate deeply into tissues through very fine capillaries.  They are capable of passing through fenestrations in epithelial linings.  They facilitate efficient uptake by cells.  They ensure effective delivery of functional compounds to specific target sites, thereby enhancing bioavailability.

Application of Nanoparticles in Animal Nutrition

Nano-Minerals in Animal Feed

Recent studies have highlighted the significant role of nanominerals in improving animal health, productivity, and nutrient utilization. The following summarizes key nanominerals and their biological functions: [15,16,17] . [18,19,20,21,27] . [22,23,24] . [18,25,26,27] .

Calcium and Phosphorus Nanoparticles

Selenium Nanoparticles

Copper Nanoparticles

As Feed Additives

Nano-additives are commonly present in protein micelles, nano-capsules, and natural feed components (Khalid & Arif, 2022) [32] . Nano-capsulation has been reported to improve the bioavailability of compounds such as essential oils, flavors, and antioxidants (Ozogul et al., 2022) [33] .

Encapsulation techniques are also used to protect minerals and micronutrients from oxidative damage while masking undesirable tastes (Galanakis, 2019) [34] . Liposomal nano-vesicles play an important role in delivering nutrients, enzymes, flavors, and antimicrobial agents within food systems (Pateiro et al., 2021) [35] . Additionally, proteins and other biomolecules can encapsulate nano-additives within micelles and oil droplets that are stabilized by amphiphilic (bipolar) molecules (Prasad et al., 2022) [36] . These nano-additives may either remain dispersed in aqueous systems or be enclosed within lipid-based structures. For instance, nano-capsules are often used to carry omega-3 fish oil, helping to reduce its unpleasant odor and taste (Liao et al., 2021). Feed additives constitute essential raw materials in the modern feed industry by improving nutritional value, animal production efficiency, health, cost reduction, and product quality (Pandey et al., 2019) [37,38] .

Feed Processing

Nanoscale particles are characterized by their ultrafine size, increased surface area, and enhanced capacity for nutrient absorption (Mobasser & Firoozi, 2016) [39] . Advances in nanotechnology have contributed to the development of functional feeds by enabling the encapsulation of valuable ingredients, thereby preventing nutrient losses during processing and ensuring efficient delivery within the animal system (Tiwari, 2022) [40] . A key aspect of this technology is the incorporation of nano-capsules into feed formulations, which facilitate targeted and controlled nutrient delivery (Fajardo et al., 2022) [41] . In particular, nano-chelates of approximately 50 nm in size have been reported to effectively deliver nutrients without altering the sensory properties of feed, such as color and taste (Ahmed et al., 2023) [42] .

Impact of inclusion of nanoparticles on animal feed. 6.1 Improve Nutrient absorption, Nutrient utilization and Growth performance

Nanoparticles play a pivotal role in enhancing nutrient absorption by mitigating the adverse effects of bivalent cations, particularly in the case of trace minerals. This advantage is especially evident in livestock and poultry, where nanoparticles improve nutritional efficiency and optimize the utilization of feed and dietary supplements (Marappan et al., 2017) [2] . For instance, studies have demonstrated that nano-sized zinc oxide (ZnO) promotes growth performance and improves feed efficiency in both piglets (Li et al., 2018) [24,44,45] observed that selenium supplementation not only improvedgrowth performance but also enhanced selenium bioavailability in the blood and various tissues of growing male goats.

Enhance meat and egg quality

The potential of nanoparticles to enhance the quality of meat and eggs has been extensively investigated. For instance, Poddar & Kishore (2022) [46] reported that supplementation of chromium nanoparticles (200 g/kg) in finishing pigs resulted in animals that were 14.06% leaner at slaughter compared to control groups. Similarly, Xiong et al. (2022) [47] demonstrated that chitosan nanoparticles improved skeletal muscle mass and meat quality in pigs by reducing fatty acid synthase activity. Moreover, the incorporation of nanomaterials into animal feed or drinking water has been shown to enhance both product quality and production efficiency, including improvements in broiler meat, egg yolk characteristics, and eggshell quality (Dong et al., 2022) [48] . Appropriate nanoparticle concentrations are critical, as they help maintain product quality even under prolonged exposure (Mortensen et al., 2022) [49] . From a consumer perspective, acceptance of meat and eggs derived from animals supplemented with nanoparticles remains favorable, particularly when product quality is improved or remains comparable to conventional products (Bhagat & Singh, 2022) [50] . However, prior to the application of nanoparticlebased additives in animal production systems, it is essential to thoroughly evaluate their biological interactions and potential byproducts to ensure safety for consumption (Dupuis et al., 2022) [51] .

Improve Milk Producion and Quality

Rajendran (2013) [52] observed that supplementing with nano ZnO led to increased milk production. Nanotechnology also holds significant potential for improving the safety and nutritional quality of milk intended for human consumption. For example, Sung et al., (2013) [53] developed a nanocomposite system comprising anti-Staphylococcus aureus antibodies, gold nanoparticles, and magnetic nanoparticles, enabling a rapid colorimetric assay capable of detecting S. aureus in milk within 40 minutes. Furthermore, Lee et al. (2015) [54] reported that the incorporation of nanopowdered oyster shells into milk significantly increased its calcium content from 100 to 120 mg/ml.

Improve the immune responses

Studies conducted by Sahoo et al. (2014a; 2014b) [55] found that adding nano zinc to the diet of broiler birds at a concentration of 0.06 ppm considerably enhanced the immune response compared to the conventional dosage of 15 ppm, whether it was organic or inorganic. Furthermore, Saki and Salary (2014) [56] revealed that chicks hatched from eggs treated with nano-silver exhibited significantly stronger humoral immunity in their laying hens.

Effect on Rumen

Supplementation of nano-selenium in the diet of sheep has shown to modify the pattern of fermentation in the rumen, by increasing the production of propionate, which in turn reduce the acetate: propionate ratio (Shi et al., 2011). In a study by El-Nile et al. (2023) [24,57] , natural zeolite in nano form, was introduced as a feed additive, which ultimately resulted in improved rumen fermentation pattern, blood metabolites, milk production and feed intake in dairy goats.

The findings showed a boost in milk production and shortchain fatty acids. Additionaly, incorporating nano selenium into the basic diet has been observed to improve rumen fermentation and feed efficiency, likely by promoting the activity of rumen microbes, digestive microorganisms, or enzymes (Shi et al., 2011) [24] .

Toxicity and Safety Concerns

Despite its advantages, nanotechnology raises concerns regarding toxicity and safety. Nanoparticles can generate reactive oxygen species, leading to oxidative stress and cellular damage. They may also trigger inflammatory responses and affect cellular functions. Prolonged exposure may result in genetic damage and mutations (Egbuna et al., 2021) [58] . Therefore, it is essential to conduct thorough risk assessments and establish safe dosage levels before widespread application.

Challenges and Future Prospects

The application of nanotechnology in animal nutrition faces challenges such as lack of standardization, limited regulatory frameworks, and insufficient long-term safety data. Due to their unique characteristics, nanomaterials may cause unforeseen environmental and health risks. It's crucial to establish appropriate dosage limits to prevent the dangers of over-supplementation. Issues concerning safety thresholds and toxicity are significant barriers to the commercial use of nanoparticles (Radha et al., 2014) [59] .

The elevated cost of nano-feed additives also present a challenge that cannot be overlooked (Dumlu, 2024). Future research should focus on developing safe and cost-effective nano-feed additives, establishing regulatory guidelines, and exploring new applications in livestock production. With proper regulation and research, nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize animal nutrition and contribute to sustainable livestock production systems.

Conclusion

Nanotechnology represents a revolutionary approach in animal nutrition, offering innovative solutions to improve feed efficiency, nutrient utilization, and animal health. Its applications, including nano-minerals, nano additives and nano-encapsulation have demonstrated significant benefits in livestock production. However, challenges related to safety, cost, and regulation must be addressed to ensure sustainable adoption. With continued research and technological advancements, nanotechnology is expected to play a vital role in the future of animal nutrition.

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