Effectiveness of a TSP-Funded Extension Intervention for Mushroom Cultivation in Tribal Areas of Chamoli District, Uttarakhand

Introduction

Mushroom cultivation has been recognized in global prominence as a very sustainable, high nutritious value crop and low-input agricultural activity with significant potential for food security and income generation. Globally mushroom production has reported a Significant exponential growth, increasing from 1.2 million tonnes in 1981 to over 34 million tonnes in 2020 (FAO, 2021). This rise in surge is attributed to rising demands of consumers for functional foods.There is a superior nutritional profile of mushroomsand their role in supporting smallholder farmer livelihoods (Chang and Miles, 2004) [3] . Edible mushrooms are very rich in high-quality protein consisting 20-30 percent of dry weight, dietary fiber, B-complex vitamins, vitamin D, essential minerals such as selenium and potassium, and bioactive compounds with antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties (Wasser, 2017) [29] . Mushrooms are increasingly recognized as a "superfood" and are being included into diets across both developing and developed countries.In India, mushroom cultivation is growing as a profitable venture under protected cultivation technologies promoted by several government initiatives. According to the National Horticulture Board (NHB, 2023), India's mushroom production reached approximately 1.3 million tonnes in 2022, with button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) and oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp.) dominating commercial production in the country. Mushroom farming synchronises with the objectives of government programs such as the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY), National Horticulture Mission (NHM), and Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH), which encourage small-scale, climate-resilient, and incomegenerating activities for rural households.Mushroom cultivation requires minimal land (can be undertaken in 100-200 sq. ft.), moderate capital investment (₹10,000-50,000 for small-scale units), and relatively short production cycles (4-8 weeks depending on species), making it particularly attractive for poor farmers, landless laborers and marginalized groups including women and tribal communities (Kumari et al., 2020). Previous studieshave highlighted the potential of mushroom production in empowering rural women and youth by integrating it into homestead-based agricultural systems (Tiwary, 2020; Parvin et al., 2022; Dey et al., 2020; Shahi et al., 2018; Mayanja & Tipi, 2017) [28,18,5,22,13] . The year-round cultivation possibilities through appropriate species selection, combined with expanding domestic and export markets, further enhance its appeal as a livelihood diversification option (Bashir et al., 2018) [2] . In Uttarakhand, the agro-climatic conditions of the Himalayan region are highly conducive to mushroom cultivation. Cooler temperatures in higher altitudes (above 1500 m) favor button mushroom production during summer months, while warmer plains and mid-hills reports oyster and milky mushroom cultivation throughout the year. Despite these favorable conditions, adoption rates remain disappointingly low among hill farmers. Studies conducted in various hill districts have identified major barriers, including inadequate technical knowledge about cultivation practices, poor awareness of market potential and value-addition opportunities, absence of structured skill training programs, limited access to quality spawn and other critical inputs, and weak institutional support mechanisms (Mohapatra, 2023 [15,9,19,17,26,27] .Such interventions have proven effective in enhancing farmers' technical knowledge, transforming their perceptions about new technologies, and building the practical skills needed for successful enterprise management (Sharma and Singh, 2022). Participatory training approaches that emphasize learning-by-doing and peer-to-peer knowledge exchange are particularly impactful in resourceconstrained settings, leading to higher adoption rates and sustained practice (Das et al., 2020; Meena et al., 2019) [14] .

Objectives of the Study

The specific objectives of the study were: 1. To assess changes in farmers' knowledge and awareness regarding mushroom cultivation practices, economic benefits, and marketing strategies. 2. To evaluate attitude change toward adopting mushroom cultivation as a viable livelihood option in the local socioeconomic context. 3. To measure skill acquisition in critical cultivation practices and assess adoption intent post-training intervention.

Materials and Methods

Study Area and Site Selection

The study was conducted in two purposively selected villages-Birahi (Dasholi Block) and Parsari (officially Raini Chak Lata, Joshimath Block)-of Chamoli district, Uttarakhand. the Garhwal Himalayas at elevations ranging from 1800-2200 meters above sea level. The region is characterized by rugged terrain, limited arable land, fragmented landholdings (average 0.5-1.0 hectares per household), high dependence on subsistence agriculture and livestock rearing, seasonal outmigration of male members for employment, and limited access to extension services and market infrastructure.

Training Intervention Design

A two-day capacity development program on mushroom cultivation was conducted in each village during March 2025.

The training was designed using participatory learning approaches to ensure active engagement andexperiential learning among participants. The experiential learning component was organized into five core modules covering the essentials of mushroom cultivation. Resource persons for the training included subject-matter specialists from GBPUAT Pantnagar, KVKscientists, and experienced mushroom growers who shared their practical experiences and problem-solving approaches.

Sampling Procedure and Participant Selection

A total of 60 participants, 30 from each village, were selected through a purposive sampling technique to ensure inclusion of individuals most likely to benefit from the intervention. The selection criteria have emphasized active involvement in agriculture or allied activities, interest in adopting mushroom cultivation as a supplementary livelihood, and willingness to attend the full training and participate in pre and postevaluation processes. Preference was given to women beneficiaries in alignment with the objectives of the TSP project, while also ensuring representation across diverse age groups (20-50 years) and literacy levels. Prior to the training and data collection, informed consent was obtained from all participants.

Evaluation Design and Data Collection Tools

A pre-post evaluation design with paired comparison was employed to assess the effectiveness of the training intervention. Data were collected using multiple validated tools, including a 20-item knowledge test covering key domains of mushroom cultivation, administered before and after training to measure learning gains. Attitudinal changes were assessed using a standardized 10-statement Likert scale with established reliability (Cronbach's α = 0.82). Practical competencies were evaluated through a trainer-administered checklist rating participants' skills across critical cultivation practices. Adoption intent was measured using a structured single-item survey capturing participants' readiness to adopt mushroom cultivation, while post-training perceptions were gathered through a feedback form rating satisfaction with content relevance, delivery methods, practical demonstrations, and overall training quality.

Data Analysis

Data were entered, cleaned, and analyzed using SPSS version 25.0. Descriptive statistics, including frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations, were computed to summarize participant characteristics and response patterns. To test the significance of differences between pre-and post-training knowledge and attitude scores, paired sample t-tests were applied (α = 0.05). Effect size was calculated using Cohen's d to determine the practical significance of observed changes. Skill competency ratings were analyzed using frequency distribution and percentage of participants achieving competency threshold (≥4 on a 5-point scale). Adoption intent was expressed as proportions with 95% confidence intervals.

Results and Discussion

Increase in Awareness

Awareness regarding mushroom cultivation as a viable livelihood option showed substantial improvement following the training. Using a five-point awareness index encompassing economic benefits, nutritional value, environmental sustainability, government support schemes, and market opportunities, the mean score increased significantly from 2.3 (SD = 0.6) pre-training to 3.9 (SD = 0.5) post-training, indicating a 70% gain (t = 18.2, p < 0.001). Notable enhancements were observed across specific indicators: awareness of economic viability rose from 25% to 82%, knowledge of government schemes (RKVY, NHM, MIDH) increased from 20% to 75%, understanding of nutritional benefits improved from 38% to 88%, and market linkage awareness grew from 18% to 68%. These results align with the findings of Kumari et ). Notable improvements were observed across key dimensions, including perceptions of profitability (+1.7 points), confidence in managing a mushroom unit (+1.8 points), feasibility under village conditions (+1.5 points), lower perceived risk (+1.6 points), and family support (+1.6 points). This strong attitudinal enhancement reflects increased motivation and psychological readiness to adopt mushroom cultivation as a livelihood strategy. Such findings align with the Theory of Planned Behavior, which emphasizes attitude as a central determinant of technology adoption (Ajzen, 1991). The marked improvement in self-efficacy is also consistent with earlier studies demonstrating that perceived behavioral control significantly influences adoption decisions (Singh & Chauhan, 2018) [22] . Additionally, the rise in perceived feasibility and family support suggests that the participatory nature of the training effectively addressed contextual concerns and fostered a supportive environment conducive to adoption. Competency was highest in substrate preparation (78%, mean 4.2), bed preparation (73%, mean 4.1), and spawn inoculation (70%, mean 4.0). Skills requiring more technical precisionhumidity and hygiene management (68%, mean 3.9), pest identification (67%, mean 3.8), and harvesting (65%, mean 3.7)-showed slightly lower competency levels. Considering that 83% of participants had no prior experience, these gains highlight the effectiveness of experiential, hands-on training methods, consistent with findings by Rogers (2003) [20] and Meena et al. (2019) [14] . The relatively lower scores in environmental management and pest identification suggest the need for continued follow-up support and practice. Total additional gross income: ₹4000-5000 from just 16 bags costing just ₹1300.Benefit-Cost Ratio (B:C): ~2.00, proving mushroom cultivation as a profitable enterprise for tribal's in selected villages.

Conclusion

The study demonstrates that targeted, participatory training can significantly enhance knowledge, attitudes, and practical skills related to mushroom cultivation among tribal communities in the Himalayan region. Feasible BC ratio indicates that mushroom cultivation is a profitable venture for the tribals .The two-day program in Birhi and Parsari villages led to a 48percentage-point increase in knowledge scores, confirming the effectiveness of structured, hands-on learning for participants with limited prior exposure. Attitudes also shifted markedly, with a 1.6-point improvement on a 5-point scale, indicating increased confidence, perceived feasibility, and readiness for adoption. Skill development was strong, with 72% of participants achieving competency across essential cultivation practices, validating the impact of experiential, supervised training. Importantly, 65% expressed intent to adopt mushroom cultivation within six months-18% immediately-highlighting the program's substantial potential to catalyze livelihood adoption and enterprise development.

Acknowledgement

AcknowledgmentsThe authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided under the Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) project by G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar. We express our sincere thanks to the participants from Birhi and Parsari villages for their enthusiastic participation in the training program. We also acknowledge the support of the District Administration, Chamoli, and the local Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Gwaldum for facilitating the training implementation. Special thanks to the resource persons and field staff who contributed to the success of this intervention.

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