Mushrooms for tomorrow: Soil health, nutrition, and sustainability combined

Introduction

The phylum known as Basidiomycetes includes mushrooms as part of this diverse taxon; along with ascomycetes, these species comprise what is referred to as the Dikarya kingdom, more commonly known as 'higher fungi' (De Mattos-Shipley and colleagues 2016) [35] . Mushrooms are one of the top choices of food for supplementation to cereal foods. The value of mushrooms lies in their tremendous nutritional content, making them an extremely popular tonic, medicinal and addition to diet worldwide. They have been found to be rich sources for protein (35%), crude fibre (19%), vitamins, carbohydrates and minerals (Thakur 2020) [36] . Mushroom cultivation has also contributed to generating income, particularly among unemployed youth within the farming community, women and self-help groups (SHGs) from urban and rural areas due to their high yield per square foot of land and short time frame, as well as their costeffective method of production (Dey and colleagues 2020) [37] . In addition, mushroom cultivation is also an attractive option for landless and marginal farmers as it does not take up much space. Vertical farming, which is a form of advanced farming, has been developed to make maximum use of the available land area. Farmers use innovative methods to produce mushrooms more efficiently in vertical columns than through traditional farming practices where crops are grown on horizontal rows across the ground. The role of mushroom farming in achieving sustainable development goals is shown in Fig. 1. Achieving these goals by 2030 is a big challenge. We need smart ways to make it happen.

Mushroom farming is directly linked to some of these goals. For example it helps with  Zero Hunger  Responsible Consumption and Production  Climate Action Mushroom farming also helps with goals like  Water and sanitation  Sustainable cities and communities  Life on Earth  Partnerships for the goals So mushroom farming is really important, for achieving these goals by 2030. Mushrooms can help us get India produces an amount of waste from farms about 620 million tons, which is really good for growing mushrooms. People in India have not used this waste to grow mushrooms as much as they could. Some people have written about this like Thakur in 2020 Kamthan and Tiwari in 2017 Grimm and Wösten in 2018 and Raman and his team in 2018 [36,40,41,42] .

Fig 1: Mushroom cultivation and Sustainable Development Goals

India is a place to grow mushrooms because it has a lot of cheap waste from farms, good roads and buildings smart people and a big population in rural areas including many small farmers. All these good things mean that growing mushrooms in India could become a business that people can do at home or even a big company. Mushroom farming in India has a lot of mushroom cultivation, in India could really take off. We review how mushroom farming can help with sustainability and food security. We also review how soil health affects mushroom farming. Open residue burning is widely practiced across Asia including countries such as the Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, Taiwan, Pakistan, Nepal, and India as a quick method for managing crop waste, with similar practices also observed in the United States. However, this approach has serious environmental and public health consequences, contributing to air pollution, respiratory illnesses, and global warming. In this context, mushroom cultivation presents a sustainable and practical alternative for utilizing agricultural residues. By converting crop waste into valuable food products, mushroom farming not only supports effective waste management but also enhances farmers' livelihoods. Despite its growing importance, there remains a need for deeper understanding of mushroom production systems, their nutritional benefits, and their environmental impacts. Equally important is the relationship between soil health and mushroom cultivation, as soil fertility influences the quality of substrates and the availability of essential nutrients required for optimal growth. This review therefore explores the role of mushroom farming in promoting environmental sustainability, improving food and nutritional security, and supporting sustainable agricultural practices. It also examines how soil health and fertility contribute to efficient and cost-effective mushroom production. Overall, mushroom cultivation holds significant potential as an ecofriendly solution that aligns agricultural productivity with environmental conservation and human well-being.

Agro-waste utilization, Mushroom cultivation, Soil health, Nutritional security

Mushroom characteristics and nutritional value

Mushrooms are the parts that grow above the ground. They are mostly part of the Basidiomycetes group. Mushrooms also team up with ascomycetes to form the Dikarya group. One big difference between mushrooms and plants is that mushrooms do not have chlorophyll. This means mushrooms cannot make their food like plants do. Instead mushrooms get their nutrients from matter. There are lots of types of mushrooms. Some mushrooms are safe to eat, like the ones with gills and puffballs. If you look around the world you will find around 12,000 species of mushrooms. About 2,000 of these mushrooms are edible. Only a small number, about 35 are grown commercially. Mushrooms come in all sorts of shapes and sizes. You have got some mushrooms that have a cap and a stem. Other mushrooms are shaped like cups. Are jelly-like. Some mushrooms even look like coral. Mushrooms can be edible. This means they are safe to eat and are actually pretty good for you. Then there are mushrooms that have special healing properties. You have to be careful. Some mushrooms are poisonous. This means they are toxic and can hurt you. Mushrooms are really good for you because they have a lot of protein, carbs, vitamins and minerals. Mushrooms are also high in fiber. They are low in fat. This is a bonus. If you are a vegetarian mushrooms are an option. Mushrooms have protein than a lot of grains. They also have some important amino acids. These amino acids are good for your body. The fat that mushrooms do have is mostly the kind. This is fat. Unsaturated fat is great for your heart health. So all mushrooms are a pretty great food to add to your diet. Mushrooms are a source of carbs. These carbs include sugars and fiber. These are really good for your gut. Mushrooms also have lots of vitamins. These vitamins are like the B-ones. Mushrooms have minerals such as potassium and copper. The potassium in mushrooms helps keep your blood pressure in check. Since mushrooms are low in sodium this is a bonus too. Mushrooms have properties. These properties come from www.extensionjournal.com things like polysaccharides and antioxidants. These things help keep us healthy. They fight off viruses reduce inflammation and even help to prevent cancer. For example the *Ganoderma lucidum* mushroom is really good at helping to lower blood pressure and cholesterol levels. Mushrooms have antioxidants that protect our cells from getting damaged. This can reduce the risk of getting sick. Overall mushrooms are pretty amazing. This is because of all the things they can do for our bodies. Mushrooms are really good for you. They can make a difference in your health. Mushrooms have got some fat. They also have lots of high-quality protein and important nutrients. Your body needs these nutrients. So adding mushrooms to your meals can be a way to make sure you are eating a balanced diet. Mushrooms are a food to eat.

Types of agricultural waste

Agricultural waste is broken down into two main types (Mande et al., 2005) [38] . Crop residues come from the land while wood and industrial processing waste comprise agricultural waste, providing a valuable source of biomass.

Crop residues, such as grasses, stalks, stems, leaves, roots, branches, haulms, and twigs, represent the residual biomass generated by the main crop after it has been harvested in the field or on farm. The processing of crops into food and other products generates many different types of waste; these include culls, rinds, seeds, pits, pulp, press cakes, marc, malts, hops, and many other residual products resulting from large-scale food production (Philippoussis, 2009) [39] .

Physico-chemical composition of substrates

Agro-based residues are really varied. They do not dissolve in water. They are made up of cellulose and hemicellulose and lignin. Agro-based residues also have some things like pectin and starch and other polysaccharides. Agro-based residues have a lot of good things like nutrients. These nutrients include things like nitrogen and phosphorus and potassium and calcium and magnesium and sulfur. Agro-based residues also have some nutrients like manganese and iron and zinc and copper and boron and molybdenum. The amounts of these nutrients in Agro-based residues are about 0.5 to 1.5 percent nitrogen and 0.15 to 0.2 percent phosphorus and 1 percent potassium and 1 percent calcium and 0.5 percent magnesium and 0.

Preparation of substrate

Mycelium can grow on straw that has been treated with water. Other types of moulds on the straw can stop it from growing by making poisonous compounds. These moulds www.extensionjournal.com compete with the mycelium during the spawn run. To help the mycelium grow people have found ways to kill the microorganisms that are in the straw.

The method used to get the straw ready for the mycelium to grow depends on the type of mushroom that is being grown. There are two ways to prepare the straw. (I)One way is to use straw that has been composted. This straw is made by fermenting and pasteurizing it. This method is used to grow mushrooms like A. Bisporus or A. Subrufescens Peck, well as P. Ostreatus, Pleurotus sajorcaju and Pleurotus cistidiosus.

(II)The other way is to use straw that has not been composted. This straw is made ready by using steam or chemicals to sterilize it before the mycelium is added. Mushrooms, like L. Edodes, Auricularia sp., F. Velutipes, Pleurotus eryngii, Agrocybe aegerita and V. Volvacea are grown on this type of straw.

Preparation of compost

 The preparation of compost happens in two steps Phase I and Phase II composting.  During Phase I people take wheat or rice straw and other things. They get them really wet. They need to absorb a lot of water 75 percent.  After that they use these things to build a big pile that has a lot of air in it.  They break the pile after two days. Add water to the dry parts.  Then they build the pile again. This helps to make the compost really hot. It all gets mixed together.  After they have turned the four times they usually do Phase II composting in a big tunnel where it gets really hot.  There are two parts to Phase II one is called conditioning. The other is pasteurization.  In the conditioning part they heat the compost to a temperature that is just right for certain tiny living things to grow.

This temperature is between 45 and 52 degrees Celsius.  While this is happening, a lot of the smelling part of the compost gets trapped or it gets eaten by tiny living things. If there is much of this bad smelling part it goes up into the air. The next part is pasteurization, which's, like a cleaning step.  It helps to kill the tiny living things that can make people sick.  To do this they heat the compost to 59 degrees Celsius for a hours, usually four to six hours. This makes sure the compost is safe to use.

Decomposition of substrates and nutrient utilization by mushroom

 Mushroom species can break down residues whether they are in their natural state or have been composted. Mushroom species can do this. They are different when it comes to making the enzymes needed to break down lignocellulosic residues. This means they are different in their ability to grow and produce fruit on substrates.  The main sources of carbohydrates in plant residues are cellulose and hemicellulose. These are often covered in lignin, which creates a barrier around them.

Lignocellulose is a compact material that does not dissolve in water.  So there are two types of enzymes that help break down lignocellulose: the hydrolytic system and the oxidative system. The hydrolytic system releases enzymes that break down cellulose and hemicellulose. The oxidative system releases enzymes that break down lignin.  Laccase is an enzyme that can oxidize phenols. This makes it very good at breaking down units in lignin. It also plays a role in helping morel fungi use plant litter in the soil.

The type of substrate used to grow mushrooms and the type of mushroom species can affect the type of enzymes released by the mushrooms. Morchella importuna is a type of mushroom that lives in the soil. It can use decomposed plant litter in the soil as a source of carbon. Mushrooms have genes that encode enzymes that can help turn waste into useful nutrients. The laccase-like multicopper oxidase genes are important for breaking down plant litter in the soil. The black morel species M. Importuna SCYDJ1-A1 has two of these genes called MiLacA. Milacb. MiLacA can act like laccase and polyphenol oxidase. This means it is involved in breaking down matter. Morchella importuna can break down residues. Morchella importuna is good, at using decomposed plant litter in the soil. Morchella importuna has genes that help it break down waste.

5.

Interlinking soil health with substrate production for mushroom farming 5.1 Soil health, substrate production and mushroom farming: Mushroom production requires a lot of nitrogen and other nutrients to start the fermentation process. The problem is that the raw ingredients used for mushroom production do not have enough of these nutrients. For example straw has an amount of nitrogen but it is not enough to meet the nitrogen requirements. So to solve this problem additional ingredients are added to the mixture used for mushroom production. This is called mushroom supplementation. It is a way to add nutrients to the ingredients used for growing mushrooms. Researchers like Carrasco and his team found that adding nutrients like horse dung, chicken manure or cow manure can really improve mushroom production and quality. When it comes to growing mushrooms the environment plays a role. This includes the soil, which's a critical component. However the soil has not received attention even though its health is very important for producing good quality mushroom. Soil health is very important for crop production. It affects the quality of the crops including the nutrients they contain.

It is hard to understand how soil health affects the nutritional quality of crops because it involves many complicated processes. The organic matter in the soil plays a role in maintaining its health. This in turn affects the yield and quality of crops. If the soil has than 1.1% organic carbon the crop yield can decrease by around 20%. Morchella mushrooms are different from edible fungi because they are grown directly in the soil. However growing Morchella mushrooms can be challenging due to www.extensionjournal.com productivity and failure to produce fruiting bodies. This can be caused by factors, including poor mushroom spawn, bad field management and soil-borne pathogens. One of the pathogens that affect Morchella mushrooms is Paecilomyces penicillatus. The success of Morchella mushroom cultivation depends on the diversity of soil populations. A healthy soil environment with the composition of soil microbiota is necessary for optimal yields. This means having a reduced number of soil-borne pathogens, which's beneficial for growing Morchella mushrooms in soil. Mushroom production requires a soil environment and Morchella mushrooms are no exception. The soil health is critical, for Morchella mushroom cultivation. It is essential to maintain a healthy soil environment to achieve good quality and high yields of Morchella mushrooms.

Strategies to improve substrate quality

Agronomy, water and nutrient management practices have an impact on the quality and quantity of the substrate. For example agronomy, water and nutrient management practices are very important. Fig. 7 Shows ways to improve substrate production. By adding nitrogen and protein to the substrate we can reduce the need for extra nutrient supplements from chicken manure and horse manure. Agronomy practices like intercropping, crop rotation, green manuring and conservation agriculture are ways to increase straw production and quality. Crop rotation and conservation agriculture make the soil and straw better. Some researchers found that keeping crop residue increased wheat straw yield by 1.38 times compared to not keeping it. There are water management strategies, like pressured irrigation systems and ways to keep moisture in the soil that can improve crop quality.

Water harvesting systems help use rainfall efficiently which makes rain-fed agriculture more sustainable and reliable. Soil fertility management is also important for improving crop production and straw quality. Soil management practices like straw incorporation, balanced fertilization and organic manure help improve soil health and nutrient cycling, which makes straw and grain quality better. The relationship between soil quality and substrate quality in mushroom production is complicated. Substrate quality has an impact on soil quality. Some researchers showed that mushrooms can be contaminated with metals, which is a big health risk. This is why it is very important to use substrates.

Using high quality compost and casing layers is important. The casing layer is especially good for adding matter that makes the soil better. Some researchers found that waste mushroom substrate can improve soil characteristics and plant growth. This suggests that using substrate can improve soil quality. Some scientists suggested using fungi and enzymes to make rice straw a better substrate. These fungi and enzymes break down lignin in rice straw which's hard to decompose. By using these fungi and enzymes we can make more nutrients available for mushroom growth. Another researcher agreed that we need to improve the value of straw especially its carbohydrate content. However some other researchers found that the size of straw particles and the amount of spawn inoculation can affect mushroom production. Some other scientists think that incorporating straw into soil can make it better for mushroom growing. We can also use types of straw like wheat, barley or oat straw to make a compost that is rich in nutrients for mushrooms. Another approach is to check the nutrients in the substrate and add more if needed. For example some researchers found that agricultural residues with levels of potassium can increase mushroom production. Agronomy, water and nutrient management practices are very important for improving substrate quality. Agronomy practices like crop rotation and conservation agriculture can make the soil and straw better. By using soil management practices we can improve soil health and nutrient cycling, which makes straw and grain quality better. The quality of the substrate is very important for mushroom production and agronomy, water and nutrient management practices play a role, in this.

Mushroom farming environmental, food and nutritional security

Mushroom farming has a potential to produce effective medicinal products and provide nutritionally enriched food. Mushroom farming is also good for the environment because it helps reduce pollution. Mushroom mycelia are used to extract and break down pollutants.

The impact of mushroom farming on the environment is shown in Figure 9. People are becoming more aware of the effects of mushroom farming. Some composting techniques are not good. Release harmful gases like methane and ammonia which are bad for the environment. These gases are released when nitrogen-containing molecules break down. Methanogens also create methane in environments without oxygen. The carbon to nitrogen ratio is important for composting. Experts say that a ratio of 15 to 30 is good but 20 to 25 is even better. Mushroom farming is not as bad for the environment as types of farming. For example producing one kilogram of shiitake mushrooms releases 1.87 kilograms of carbon dioxide, which's less than what is released by producing tomatoes, baby corn and potatoes. Mushroom farming also has a carbon footprint than beef, poultry, pork and egg farming.

Mushroom farming uses water than other types of farming.

Compost and casing soil are the two things used to grow mushrooms. The mushroom is made up of 90 percent water. The compost and casing layer provide the mushroom with water.

Growing mushrooms requires water than growing many other food crops. 1.8 Gallons of water are needed to grow one pound of mushrooms. Most of the water used in mushroom farming is used for electricity generation. The water footprint of mushroom farming is lower than that of farming practices. Mushroom farming is considered carbon positive. Has lower greenhouse gas emissions, than other types of farming.

Future strategies for improving mushroom quality and environmental safety

We need to do something about climate change so we should make some rules about growing and using mushrooms. These rules are important for keeping the earth www.extensionjournal.com healthy for a time, which is good for people now and people in the future. Growing mushrooms can make a difference for farmers and the earth and it can also help people have better lives. We need people from groups to work together to make people think growing mushrooms is a good thing. If we work together we can grow mushrooms and have more types of food to eat. We need to learn more about how to grow and use mushrooms in a way that's good, for the earth. Here are some things we can do in the future.

Zero waste farming/eco-friendly waste management and circular economy

The European Union produces a lot of garbage every year from farming with over 700 million tons. The rest of the world produces more. The idea of an economy is becoming important because of increasing environmental problems caused by throwing away waste and running out of natural resources. The main goal of the economy is to make use of waste reduce it and recycle it.

Growing mushrooms is a way to make use of leftover farm and industrial waste  A lot of waste from farms and industries is produced every year. It has a lot of value because it is rich in organic materials. These materials can be used to grow mushrooms.  Burning crop waste in fields and using landfills has caused a lot of environmental damage including making global warming worse and harming animals and plants.

It also affects peoples health.  Using crop waste to grow mushrooms can make the biomass more nutritious and increase mushroom yields.  Growing mushrooms on crop waste can be profitable for farmers. Is good, for the environment because it recycles waste. The potential of using crop waste to grow mushrooms has value.

Conclusion

Mushroom farming can really help with food and nutritional security. Keeping the environment safe by using waste. This is done by recycling waste materials. The quality and quantity of mushrooms grown are closely tied to the properties of the materials used. These raw materials directly affect the minerals in the mushrooms because the mushrooms mycelium is in contact with them and takes in nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and vitamins. However the materials used for mushroom farming are low in nitrogen and other nutrients. This makes it hard to grow high-quality mushrooms unless extra nutrients are added. To keep improving mushroom yield and quality we need a breeding program and advanced techniques. Some of these techniques include mutagenesis, mycelial matting and recombinant DNA technology. Also understanding soil health is crucial for making nutrient-substrates for mushrooms. When we improve these substrates we can increase mushroom yield and nutritional quality. This review aims to connect soil health, substrate quality and mushroom production. Earlier reviews did not address this connection. We found that there is limited information on this topic. Creating policies for mushroom production is important, with climate change and food security challenges. We need to ensure that our environment stays eco-friendly for now and future generations. Mushroom farming and soil health are closely linked to achieving this goal. By focusing on these areas we can make mushroom production more sustainable. Mushroom production can then support both food security and environmental safety.

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