Growth, yield, and morphological variability in tomato as influenced by improved management practices

Introduction

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is among the most widely cultivated and economically important vegetable crops worldwide (Khopade et al., 2025) [11] . It is valued for its high nutritional content, being a rich source of vitamins A and C, minerals, and antioxidants such as lycopene, which has been associated with reduced risk of chronic diseases (Li et al., 2025; Motlhalamme et al., 2025) [13,14] . Globally, tomato plays a vital role in food security and agricultural economies, particularly in developing countries like India, where it is cultivated across diverse agro-climatic regions. Despite its importance, the productivity of tomato in many regions remains below potential due to several constraints, including imbalanced nutrient management, pest and disease incidence and the continued reliance on traditional farming practices (Nandhini et al., 2024) [15] . One of the major challenges in tomato cultivation is the declining soil fertility caused by excessive and unbalanced use of chemical fertilizers. Continuous application of inorganic fertilizers without adequate organic supplementation leads to deterioration of soil health, reduced microbial activity and lower nutrient use efficiency (Singh et al., 2023) [23] . In this context, Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) has emerged as a sustainable approach that combines organic and inorganic nutrient sources to maintain soil fertility and enhance crop productivity. INM not only improves nutrient availability but also enhances soil structure and biological activity, thereby contributing to long-term agricultural sustainability (Fageria et al., 2008; Gourkhede et al., 2026, Khopade et al., 2025) [5,6,11] . In addition to nutrient-related issues, pest and disease management remains a critical factor affecting tomato yield. The indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides has resulted in environmental pollution, pest resistance, and health hazards (Shanmugam et al., 2024) [20] . Therefore, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has been advocated as an eco-friendly approach that integrates biological, cultural and chemical methods to manage pests effectively while minimizing environmental impact. IPM strategies focus on pest monitoring, use of resistant cultivars, biological control agents, and needbased application of pesticides, ensuring both economic and ecological benefits (Kogan, 1998) [9] . Integration of INM and IPM into a unified management module represents a holistic approach to crop production. Such integrated crop management practices aim to optimize resource use efficiency, improve crop performance, and reduce environmental risks. Several studies have reported that the combined application of nutrient and pest management practices significantly enhances growth, yield attributes, and productivity of vegetable crops, including tomato (Singh et al., 2023) [23] . Another important factor influencing tomato productivity is the choice of planting material. The use of improved cultivars (ICs) with higher genetic potential, better adaptability, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses is crucial for achieving higher yields. In contrast, farmers' varieties (FV) often exhibit lower productivity due to genetic limitations and lack of resistance traits. The adoption of improved cultivars, when combined with appropriate management practices, can substantially enhance crop performance. In recent years, the use of biological consortia (BC) has gained importance as a component of sustainable agriculture. Biological consortia consist of beneficial microorganisms that enhance nutrient availability, improve soil microbial activity and promote plant growth through various mechanisms such as nitrogen fixation, phosphorus solubilization, and production of growthpromoting substances. The application of such microbial inputs has been shown to improve crop productivity while reducing dependency on chemical inputs (Vessey, 2003) [25] . Despite the availability of these improved technologies, their adoption at the farmer level remains limited, and farmers often continue to follow traditional farming practices (FP), which are less efficient and resource-intensive. There is a need to evaluate and demonstrate the benefits of integrated approaches under field conditions to promote their adoption (Owuor and Ochieng, 2026) [16] . Therefore, the present study was undertaken to assess the effect of integrated crop management practices involving management module (MM = INM + IPM), improved cultivars (IC), biological consortia (BC), and farmers' practices (FP) on growth, yield attributes, and productivity of tomato. The findings of this study are expected to provide valuable insights into sustainable tomato production and support the development of efficient crop management strategies.

Materials and Methods

Experimental Site and Design

The field experiment was conducted over two consecutive growing seasons (2023-24 and 2024-25) under open-field conditions to evaluate the effects of different crop management practices on tomato productivity. Conducting the experiment across multiple years ensured that the results accounted for seasonal variability and environmental fluctuations. The experimental site was characterized by typical agricultural soil conditions suitable for tomato cultivation, and standard agronomic practices were followed throughout the crop growth period to maintain uniformity. The experiment was conducted using a randomized block design (RBD) with three treatments and three replications under field conditions. Each treatment was randomly allocated within each block to minimize the effect of field variability and to ensure unbiased comparison among treatments. A total of nine experimental plots were maintained. The design was adopted to control soil heterogeneity and improve the precision of treatment effects, thereby enabling reliable statistical interpretation. Each plot was maintained with uniform spacing, plant population, and management practices except for the treatment differences.

Treatments Details

The study consisted of three treatments combining crop management practices and planting materials. The treatments included: farmers' variety (Local) with farmers' practice (FV + FP); improved cultivar (Variety: Lakshmi) with an integrated management module and biological consortia (IC + MM + BC); and improved cultivar with a management module and soil amendment. The management module (MM) comprised integrated nutrient management (INM) and integrated pest management (IPM). These treatments were designed to evaluate the effectiveness of improved technologies compared to conventional farming practices.

Crop Establishment and Management

Healthy seedlings of both improved cultivar and farmers' variety were raised in well-prepared nursery beds under suitable conditions. Proper care was taken to ensure uniform germination and healthy seedling growth through timely irrigation and plant protection measures. Seedlings of 25-30 days old were transplanted into the main field. Transplanting was carried out during the evening hours to minimize transplanting shock and ensure better establishment of seedlings.

Land Preparation

The experimental field was prepared by thorough ploughing followed by harrowing to obtain a fine tilth suitable for transplanting. Well-decomposed farmyard manure was incorporated into the soil during the final land preparation to improve soil fertility and structure. The field was leveled properly and plots were laid out according to the experimental design with adequate bunds and irrigation channels.

Nutrient Management (INM Component)

Integrated nutrient management practices were followed in the respective treatments by combining organic and inorganic nutrient sources. Recommended doses of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilizers were applied. Nitrogen was applied in split doses, while phosphorus and potassium were applied as basal. Crops received fertilizer application at the rate of 150, 140, and 170 kg ha⁻¹ of urea, DAP, and MOP, respectively, along with basal application of zinc sulphate at 10 kg ha⁻¹ and borax at 5 kg ha⁻¹. Organic inputs such as farmyard manure were incorporated to enhance soil fertility and microbial activity. Biological consortia were also used to improve nutrient availability and overall plant growth.

Pest and Disease Management (IPM Component)

Integrated pest management practices were adopted to control pests and diseases in an eco-friendly manner. Regular monitoring of the crop was carried out to identify pest incidence at early stages. Biological control measures and cultural practices were emphasized, while chemical pesticides were applied only when necessary based on economic threshold levels. This approach minimized environmental impact while ensuring effective pest control.

Application of Biological Consortia (BC)

Biological consortia (Azotobacter + PSB) consisting of beneficial microorganisms were applied to enhance soil biological activity and nutrient availability. The consortia were applied through root dipping of seedlings prior to transplanting and through soil application near the root zone after establishment. These microorganisms facilitated nutrient solubilization, nitrogen fixation and plant growth promotion.

Intercultural Operations

All intercultural operations were carried out uniformly across treatments to ensure proper crop growth. Irrigation was provided at regular intervals based on crop requirements and prevailing weather conditions. Manual weeding was performed to maintain weed-free conditions. Staking and earthing up were carried out to support plant growth and improve aeration around the root zone.

Observations Recorded

All growth, phenological and yield parameters of tomato were recorded using standard procedures during the course of the experiment. Plant height (cm) was measured from the base to the tip of the main stem at final harvest using a measuring scale. The number of leaves per plant was obtained by counting all fully expanded leaves, while the number of branches per plant was recorded by counting primary branches arising from the main stem. Days to flowering was noted as the number of days from transplanting to the appearance of first flower in 50% of plants in each plot. The number of fruits per plant was determined by counting the total fruits harvested from selected plants. Fruit girth (cm) and fruit length (cm) were measured at the widest portion and from base to tip of the fruit, respectively, using a vernier caliper. Average fruit weight was calculated by dividing total fruit weight by number of fruits and expressed in grams:

Average fruit weight (g) = Total fruit yield per plot was recorded and converted to yield per hectare: Yield (kg acre⁻¹) = × 4000

Statistical Analysis

The recorded data were subjected to statistical analysis using standard procedures. Descriptive statistics such as mean, standard deviation and standard error were computed to summarize the data. Pearson's correlation analysis was performed to evaluate relationships among growth and yield parameters. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted under the randomized block design framework to test the significance of treatment effects. Where significant differences were observed, mean separation was performed using Tukey's honestly significant difference test. Additionally, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to assess the combined effect of treatments across multiple variables. Principal component analysis (PCA) was also performed to identify major contributing traits and reduce data dimensionality. All analyses were conducted using appropriate statistical software, and results were interpreted at standard levels of significance.

Results and Discussion

Effect of Treatments on Growth Parameters

The growth parameters of tomato were significantly influenced by different treatment combinations, indicating the effectiveness of improved management practices over conventional methods (Table 1). [23] , who reported significant improvement in vegetative growth of tomato under integrated nutrient management practices. Similarly, Vessey (2003) [25] emphasized that plant growth-promoting microorganisms enhance root growth and nutrient uptake, thereby improving plant development. The enhanced growth under integrated treatments may also be attributed to improved soil physical properties and increased enzymatic activity, as reported by Fageria et al., (2008) [5] . The reduction in days to flowering under integrated treatments may be attributed to optimal nutrient availability and reduced biotic stress, which accelerated physiological processes and crop development. Early flowering is advantageous because it extends the reproductive phase, leading to better yield realization. The delayed flowering observed under farmers' practices may be due to nutrient imbalances and higher pest incidence, which can slow plant growth. These results are consistent with Kumar et al., (2017) [10] and Porras et al., (2022) [18] who reported that integrated nutrient and pest management significantly reduced days to flowering in vegetable crops.

Effect of treatments on Yield Attributes and Yield

The yield attributes and fruit yield of tomato were markedly influenced by different treatment combinations, clearly reflecting the advantage of integrated crop management practices (Table 1). The improved cultivar also contributed due to its higher yield potential and better adaptability. These findings are consistent with those of Adesemoye et al. (2010) [1] , who reported that microbial inoculants significantly improve yield components by enhancing nutrient efficiency and plant health. Similar results were reported by Chumyani et al. (2012) [3] , who observed increased fruit size and weight under integrated nutrient management. Similarly, Fageria et al. (2008) [5] and Kogan (1998) [9] highlighted the importance of integrated nutrient management and integrated pest management in reducing yield losses and improving crop performance, ultimately enhancing crop productivity by improving nutrient use efficiency.

Correlation Analysis among Growth, Yield Attributes, and Yield

Correlation analysis revealed strong, positive associations among growth parameters, yield attributes, and fruit yield in tomato, indicating their interdependence in determining crop productivity (Table 2). Fruit yield showed a very strong positive correlation with plant height (r = 0.8739) and days to flowering (r = 0.8971), indicating that taller plants with longer growth duration contributed significantly to higher yield. Similarly, yield was strongly correlated with the number of leaves per plant (r = 0.8783) and number of branches per plant (r = 0.8347), suggesting that enhanced vegetative growth improves photosynthetic efficiency and assimilate production, ultimately leading to increased productivity. The strong interrelationship among vegetative traits such as plant height, number of leaves and number of branches observed in the present study is in accordance with earlier findings, where improved vegetative growth resulted in better assimilate production and translocation to reproductive parts (Vessey, 2003; Fageria et al., 2008) [25,5] . Among yield attributes, fruit yield exhibited a strong positive correlation with average fruit weight (r= 0.9035) and fruit length (r= 0.8058), indicating that larger and heavier fruits contributed directly to higher yield. A moderate to strong positive correlation was observed with the number of fruits per plant (r= 0.6973) and fruit girth (r= 0.6380), suggesting their supportive role in yield improvement. The interrelationship among growth traits was also strong, with plant height and number of leaves (r= 0.9310) showing a very high positive correlation. Similarly, the number of leaves was strongly associated with average fruit weight (r= 0.8972), indicating that better foliage development enhances assimilate supply for fruit growth. Days to flowering showed strong positive correlations with most growth and yield parameters, particularly with plant height (r= 0.8670) and fruit yield (r= 0.8971), suggesting that an extended vegetative phase under improved management contributes to higher biomass accumulation and yield. The strong positive associations among these parameters highlight the importance of integrated crop management practices for simultaneously improving growth and yield components. Several researchers have reported that plant height and number of leaves are positively correlated with fruit yield, as these traits enhance photosynthetic capacity and biomass accumulation, ultimately improving productivity (Singh 2020; El Hjouji et al., 2025) [24,4] . The significant positive relationship observed between average fruit weight and fruit yield is also supported by previous studies, which indicated that fruit weight is one of the most important yield-determining components in tomato (Singh et al., 2018) [22] .

Statistical Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

The analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that the treatment had a highly significant effect on tomato growth and yield (P < 0.001), with an F-value of 75.94 (Table 3). This confirms that the variation between management practices, specifically the superiority of the integrated approach (IC + IPM + INM + BC), is statistically robust. The year was also a significant source of variation (F = 8.83, P = 0.0059), suggesting that seasonal factors influenced overall performance. However, the interaction between treatment and year was nonsignificant (F = 0.22, P = 0.8001), indicating that the treatments performed consistently across both years of the study. The block effect was significant (F = 25.80, P < 0.001), reflecting variability due to the experimental layout and justifying the use of a randomized design to isolate treatment effects. Thus, the ANOVA results confirm that treatment effects were the primary source of variation, validating the impact of integrated management practices on tomato productivity. These results align with findings from Kumar et al., (2022) [12] , who reported significant increases in yield components under integrated nutrient management and Pandey and Chandra (2013) [17] , who showed marked improvements in tomato growth parameters under integrated practices compared to traditional farmers' practices. The high R-squared value of 0.8657 further confirms that the model accounted for the majority of the observed variation, lending high credibility to these findings.

Post-hoc Comparison of Treatments (Tukey HSD Test)

To further identify specific differences in management practices, a Tukey HSD post hoc test was conducted on fruit yield (Table 4). The results revealed that all pairwise comparisons between the three treatments were statistically significant, as none of the 95% confidence intervals included zero. The most substantial yield difference was observed between IC + IPM + INM + BC (Treatment 2) and FV + FP (Treatment 1), with a significant positive contrast of 1915.65 kg ha⁻¹. Similarly, IC + MM + Lime (Treatment 3) significantly outyielded the conventional practice by 822.69 kg ha⁻¹. Furthermore, the comparison between the two improved practices (Treatment 3 vs 2) showed a significant negative contrast of -1092.96 kg ha⁻¹, indicating that the partial adoption of improved practices was significantly less effective than the fully integrated suite. These results are in close agreement with those of Pandey and Chandra (2013) [17] , who observed that integrating biofertilizers and improved nutrient management resulted in 29-34% yield increases over traditional methods in tomato. Similar significant differences between integrated and conventional modules were reported by Jacob (2019) [8] , who highlighted that the synergistic effect of IPM creates a superior yield-contributing environment compared to farmers' practices alone. Additionally, Sharma et al., (2010) [21] demonstrated through analysis that integrated nutrient management consistently forms a distinct statistical group with the highest mean yields, while conventional practices remain significantly inferior due to imbalanced inputs and poor pest control. These findings collectively emphasize that while any improvement over conventional methods is beneficial, the maximum yield potential of tomato is achieved only through the holistic integration of improved cultivars, bio-inputs, and balanced nutrient management.

Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA)

Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed to evaluate the collective effect of treatments on multiple dependent variables simultaneously, including growth parameters, phenological traits, yield attributes, and fruit yield (Table 5).

The results indicated a highly significant multivariate effect of treatments (Wilks' Lambda = 0.0096; F = 24.54; P < 0.001), confirming that the combined response of all measured parameters was significantly influenced by the different treatment combinations. Notably, the multivariate test for the Year effect was nonsignificant (Wilks' Lambda = 0.7688; P = 0.6183), suggesting that the combined expression of growth and yield traits remained stable across the two years of the study. The significant multivariate test statistics (Wilks' Lambda, Pillai's Trace, and Lawley-Hotelling Trace) indicate that the observed differences across traits were statistically robust and interrelated. The strong contribution of yield-related parameters, such as average fruit weight and number of fruits, further strengthened the multivariate significance. These findings align with Hair et al., (2019) [7] , who emphasized the importance of MANOVA in detecting treatment effects across correlated variables. Similar multivariate responses have been reported by Agyeman et al., (2021) [2] , underscoring the utility of MANOVA in capturing treatment effects on complex, interdependent trait sets in tomato improvement programs.

Conclusion

The present study demonstrated that integrated crop management practices significantly improved the growth, yield attributes and productivity of tomato. Among the treatments, the combination of improved cultivar (IC) with management module (MM = Integrated Nutrient Management + Integrated Pest Management) and biological consortia (BC) recorded the best performance across all parameters. This treatment enhanced vegetative growth, promoted early flowering and improved fruit characteristics, ultimately resulting in higher yield. The superior performance of IC + MM + BC can be attributed to the synergistic effects of balanced nutrient supply, effective pest control, and improved soil biological activity. Biological consortia played a crucial role in enhancing nutrient availability and promoting plant growth, thereby contributing to increased productivity. The treatment involving IC + MM + Lime also showed improvement over farmers' practice, indicating the importance of integrated nutrient and pest management. In contrast, the farmers' variety under farmers' practice (FV + FP) recorded the lowest growth and yield, highlighting the limitations of traditional cultivation methods. The study also revealed positive associations between growth parameters and yield, emphasizing the importance of maintaining good plant vigor for higher productivity. Overall, the findings suggest that the adoption of integrated approaches combining improved cultivars, nutrient management, pest management and biological inputs is essential for sustainable tomato production. Therefore, the use of IC + MM + BC can be recommended as an effective strategy to enhance yield, improve soil health and ensure longterm agricultural sustainability.

References

1. Adesemoye AO, Torbert HA, Kloepper JW. Increased plant uptake of nitrogen from 15N-depleted fertilizer using plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria. Applied Soil Ecology. 2010;46(1):54-58.
2. Agyeman A, Asante IK, Oteng-Frimpong R. Principal component analysis approach for assessment of yield and related traits in tomato. Journal of Experimental Agriculture International. 2021;43(10):10-22.
3. Chumyani C, Kanaujia SP, Singh VB, Singh AK. Effect of integrated nutrient management on growth, yield and quality of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.). 2012.
4. El Hjouji H, Qessaoui R, Chafiki S, Mayad EH, Houmairi H, Dari K, et al. Enhancement of tomato growth through rhizobacteria and biocontrol of associated diseases. Life. 2025;15(7):997.
5. Fageria NK, Baligar VC, Li YC. The role of nutrient efficient plants in improving crop yields in the twenty first century. Journal of Plant Nutrition. 2008;31(6):1121-1157.
6. Gourkhede PH, Gore AK, Patil MG, Bhutda PO, Dhurgude SS, Pathrikar DT, et al. Long-term organic nutrient management in tomato enhances yield, quality, profitability, and soil health in semi-arid conditions. Scientific Reports. 2026.
7. Hair JF, Black WC, Babin BJ, Anderson RE. Multivariate data analysis. 7th ed. Pearson; 2019.
8. Jacob S. Integrated management of tomato fruit borers in Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies. 2019.
9. Kogan M. Integrated pest management: Historical perspectives and contemporary developments. Annual Review of Entomology. 1998;43:243-270.
10. Kumar R, Batra VK, Kumar V, Kumar A. Response of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) to integrated nutrient management. International Journal of Pure and Applied Bioscience. 2017;5(5):217-221.
11. Khopade R, Sawargaonkar G, Kale S, Davala M, Rakesh S, Das SS, et al. Sustainable intensification in coconut for building system resilience and nutritional security of smallholders in Eastern India. npj Sustainable Agriculture. 2025;3(42).
12. Kumar S, Singh R, Choudhary V, Neeraj. Effect of integrated nutrient management on growth and yield of tomato in Begusarai district of Bihar. Indian Journal of Horticulture. 2022;74(4):541-545.
13. Li Y, Zhang R, Zhang C, Li Q, Nie L, Wang C, et al. Integrative approaches to nutrient management in tomato cultivation for improved sustainability and productivity. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2025;16:1626136.
14. Motlhalamme T, Kaningini AG, Maropeng R, Thema FT, Mohale KC, Maaza M. Tomato lycopene, total flavonoids, vitamin C content and mineral composition as affected by biosynthesized calcium carbonate nanoparticles foliar application. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 2025;139:107173.
15. Nandhini DU, Venkatesan S, Somasundaram E. Soil properties, tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) yield and monetary returns under different nutrient management practices. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2024;94(8):847-851.
16. Owuor S, Ochieng S. A systematic review of greenhouse and integrated pest management adoption in tomato production: Insights from smallholder farming regions. International Journal of Research in Innovative Social Sciences. 2026;10(1):2865-2872.
17. Pandey SK, Chandra KK. Impact of integrated nutrient management on tomato yield under farmers field conditions. Journal of Environmental Biology. 2013;34(6):1047-1051.
18. Porras MF, Malacrinò A, An C, Seng KH, Socheath O, Norton G, et al. An integrated pest management program outperforms conventional practices for tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) in Cambodia. Plant Health Progress. 2022;23(2):206-211.
19. Khopade RY, Sawargaonkar GL, Rakesh S, Davala MS, Kishore KK, Siddam Y, et al. Vegetable grafting: A scientific innovation to enhance productivity and profitability of tomato growers under climate change. Frontiers in Agronomy. 2025;7:1514673.
20. Shanmugam SP, Murugan M, Shanthi M, Elaiyabharathi T, Angappan K, Karthikeyan G, et al. Evaluation of integrated pest and disease management combinations against major insect pests and diseases of tomato in Tamil Nadu, India. Horticulturae. 2024;10(7):766.
21. Sharma SK, Sharma RP, Upadhyaya S. Effect of integrated nutrient management on growth, yield and quality of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) hybrid cv. Kuber Geeta. Research Journal. 2010.
22. Singh AK, Solankey SS, Akhtar S, Kumari P, Chaurasiya J. Correlation and path coefficient analysis in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.). International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 2018;7:4278-4285.
23. Singh DP, Maurya BK, Kumari M, Singh RP, Singh DB, Kumar P. Response of integrated nutrient management on growth and yield attributes in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.). Annals of Agricultural Research. 2023;44(1):120-126.
24. Singh P. Growth and yield of tomato grown under organic and inorganic nutrient management. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 2020.
25. Vessey JK. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria as biofertilizers. Plant and Soil. 2003;255(2):571-586.