Motivation as determinant of communication training needs in higher agricultural education: Role of academic and achievement motivation

Introduction

Clear and effective communication forms the foundation of professional competence in agricultural education, where graduates are expected to engage in research, extension, policy advocacy, and industry collaboration (Navani et al., 2015) [12] . Agricultural professionals frequently interact with diverse stakeholders, including farmers, researchers, policymakers, and industry representatives, making the ability to communicate complex scientific information clearly and effectively an essential skill. However, despite its importance, several studies have reported persistent communication skill gaps among agricultural graduates, particularly in writing, speaking, and scientific communication (Yadav & Kumar, 2019) [25] . These deficiencies can hinder students' ability to disseminate research findings, build professional networks, and contribute effectively to the agricultural innovation system. Consequently, understanding the factors that influence communication skill development among agricultural students has become an important area of inquiry. Previous research suggests that communication skill gaps in higher education are shaped not only by pedagogical approaches but also by psychological and motivational factors that influence students' engagement with learning activities (Rogers & Svenning, 1969; Schunk et al., 2014) [16, 19] . Among these factors, motivation plays a central role in determining how actively students participate in academic tasks, practice communication competencies, and pursue self-improvement. Motivated learners are more likely to engage in activities such as academic writing, presentations, discussions, and collaborative learning, which directly contribute to the development of communication skills. Conversely, students with lower levels of motivation may show limited engagement in these activities, potentially resulting in communication skill gaps that require structured training interventions. The role of motivation in learning and skill development can be explained through established theoretical perspectives in www.extensionjournal.com educational psychology. In particular, Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and Achievement Motivation Theory provide a useful conceptual basis for understanding how motivational processes influence communication skill development in higher education contexts. Self-Determination Theory, proposed by Deci and Ryan (2000) [3] , explains that human behavior is driven by intrinsic and extrinsic motivational processes that influence individuals' engagement with learning activities. Students with higher levels of intrinsic motivation tend to demonstrate greater curiosity, persistence, and self-regulated learning behaviors. Such students are therefore more likely to actively participate in academic activities-including presentations, discussions, scientific writing, and collaborative learningwhich are essential for developing communication competencies. Complementing this perspective, Achievement Motivation Theory emphasizes individuals' desire to attain success and demonstrate competence in performance-oriented contexts (McClelland, 1961) [9] . Achievement-oriented students typically set higher goals, actively seek feedback, and strive for continuous improvement in their academic performance. Within higher education environments, this drive for achievement encourages students to refine essential professional skills such as scientific writing, research presentation, and interpersonal communication. Consequently, students with stronger achievement motivation may demonstrate greater initiative in practicing and improving communication skills, thereby reducing potential skill gaps. In the context of higher agricultural education, communication competencies are particularly important because graduates are expected to disseminate research findings, interact with farming communities, collaborate with interdisciplinary teams, and contribute to policy dialogue. Motivated students are therefore more likely to engage in activities that strengthen these competencies, including academic writing, public speaking, critical reading, and professional communication. These motivational processes can ultimately influence the extent to which students perceive gaps in their communication abilities and their need for additional training. Despite the recognized importance of communication skills in agricultural education, existing studies have primarily focused on identifying employability skill gaps or evaluating communication competencies among agricultural graduates (Navani et al., 2015; Yadav & Kumar, 2019) [12,25] . While these studies provide valuable insights into the nature of communication deficiencies, they largely emphasize skill assessment without adequately examining the underlying psychological determinants that influence skill development. In particular, the role of motivational orientations in shaping communication competencies among postgraduate agricultural students remains relatively underexplored. Motivation has been widely studied in educational psychology as a key driver of learning engagement, persistence, and academic performance (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Schunk et al., 2014) [3,19] . However, limited research has systematically investigated how motivational construct affect students' perceived communication skill gaps and training requirements in higher agricultural education.

Understanding this relationship is particularly important because motivated learners are more likely to engage in communication-intensive academic activities such as research presentations, academic writing, and collaborative discussions, which contribute to skill development. Furthermore, most previous studies have assessed communication competencies using general self-evaluation or employability frameworks, with relatively few studies applying structured quantitative measures to estimate communication skill gaps. Integrating motivational constructs with a systematic assessment of communication training needs can therefore provide deeper insights into how psychological factors influence professional skill development among agricultural students. Academic motivation and achievement motivation represent two important dimensions of motivation relevant to higher education. Academic motivation refers to students' intrinsic and extrinsic drive to engage in learning tasks, persist in academic activities, and regulate their learning behaviours (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Schunk et al., 2014) [3,19] . Achievement motivation, on the other hand, reflects an individual's orientation toward excellence and success in performance contexts (McClelland, 1987; Reddy, 1979) [10,15] . Both forms of motivation play a crucial role in shaping students' learning behaviours and their willingness to develop professional competencies. To operationalize these constructs, the study employed the Motivation Measurement Scale (MMS) developed by Smith (2017) [21] to assess academic motivation and the Achievement Motivation Scale (AMS) developed by Reddy (1979) [15] to measure achievement motivation among postgraduate agricultural students. These instruments were selected due to their suitability for higher education contexts and their ability to capture motivation related to learning engagement and performance orientation. A detailed justification for the selection of these scales in comparison with other established motivation measures is provided in the Materials and Methods section. In this context, the present study seeks to examine the relationship between academic motivation, achievement motivation, and perceived communication skill gaps among postgraduate students in agricultural universities. By combining motivational assessment with a Training Need Index-based analysis of communication competencies across multiple skill dimensions, the study aims to provide insights into the psychological factors influencing communication skill development in higher agricultural education.

Objectives of the

Materials and Methods

An exploratory and descriptive research design was employed for this study. Three leading agricultural www.extensionjournal.com [24] is widely used to assess intrinsic and extrinsic motivation based on Self-Determination Theory. Similarly, the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) developed by Pintrich and De Groot (1990) [14] measures motivation along with learning strategies and self-regulation processes.

In the domain of achievement motivation, instruments such as the Achievement Motivation Inventory (AMI) (Schuler et al., 2004) [18] developed by Smith (2017) [21] provides a concise measure of academic motivation focused on goal orientation and persistence in learning tasks, making it suitable for higher education research. Likewise, the Achievement Motivation Scale (AMS) developed by Reddy (1979) [15] has been widely used in Indian educational contexts and offers a culturally relevant and reliable measure of students' achievement orientation. The use of these two instruments therefore enabled a focused assessment of motivational orientations most relevant to communication skill development while maintaining feasibility for large-scale quantitative data collection.

The motivation measurement scale developed by John Smith (2017) [22] , was used in this study to assess the academic motivation of the students. The scale includes twenty clear statements, and respondents were instructed to mark the appropriate score for each statement based on their self-evaluation and judgment. A score between 1 and 3 for any statement indicates low motivation (very demotivating) for that particular statement. A score between 4 and 7 reflects average motivation, with a score of 4 signifying a 'slightly motivating' attitude, and scores of 5 and 6 representing a 'neutral' stance on academic motivation for that statement. A score of 7 also indicates a 'slightly motivating' nature. Scores between 8 and 10 suggest high motivation (very motivating) for the corresponding statement.

Reddy in his 1979 study defines Achievement Motivation as personality orientation of the respondents that drives them to pursue excellence. Data was gathered from students using the achievement motivation scale developed in his study, which includes seven statements. Respondents were asked to rate their agreement with these statements on a five-point scale, ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The highest possible score for each respondent was 35, while the lowest was 7. After analyzing the data, on the basis of Cumulative Square Root Frequency (CSRF), both Academic and Achievement motivation of the students was further categorized into 3 different categories To ensure the internal consistency of the instruments used in the study, reliability analysis was conducted using Cronbach's alpha. [19,23] . [24] and Ryan & Deci (2000) [17] , who emphasize the role of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in academic engagement and performance. The findings suggest that, although the majority are motivated, interventions such as mentoring, goal-setting, and active learning could further enhance students' academic motivation and outcomes (Schunk et al., 2014; Pintrich & De Groot, 1990) [19,14] . [15,24] . Schunk et al. (2014) [19] also note that while educational environments can provide supportive structures, motivation primarily stems from internal drives and goal-directed behaviors. The similarity in motivation levels across IARI, GBPUAT, and BHU indicates a relatively homogeneous student cohort in terms of academic engagement and achievement orientation, which could facilitate generalizable interventions aimed at enhancing motivation and communication skills in agricultural education. [5,7] . Research indicates that structured writing interventions-such as peer review, writing workshops, and guided feedback-can substantially improve academic writing proficiency (Graham & Perin, 2007) [6] . Speaking skills were identified as the second most critical training need, underscoring the importance of improving verbal communication for academic presentations, professional interactions, and extension work. According to Segrin and Flora (2019) [20] , effective public speaking is vital for career development, and they advocate using interactive approaches such as mock presentations and group discussions to strengthen these skills. Reading and listening skills are fundamental for academic understanding and professional development. Strong reading skills enable students to analyze research articles, interpret policies, and make evidence-based decisions (Lundberg & Linnakyla, 1993) [8] , while active listening promotes knowledge retention, collaboration, and effective communication in research and extension contexts (Brown et al., 2014) [2] . Training programs incorporating reading strategies (e.g., skimming, critical analysis) and listening exercises can enhance these competencies significantly. Although non-verbal communication had the lowest training need score, it remains an essential aspect of interpersonal interaction. Mehrabian (2017) [11] highlights the importance of body language, eye contact, and gestures, especially in multicultural and extension settings. Overall, these findings are consistent with previous studies on communication training needs in higher education. Segrin and Flora (2019) [20] stress the importance of verbal communication for professional advancement, while Brown et al. (2014) [2] highlight foundational listening and reading skills for improved learning outcomes. The results suggest that agricultural universities should design a comprehensive communication training program prioritizing writing and speaking skills, followed by reading, listening, and nonverbal communication. Figure 2, illustrates a notable gap between the maximum attainable TNI score (100%) and the perceived importance levels of all five communication skill dimensions: speaking (89.22%), writing (88.15%), listening (87.98%), reading (89.59%), and non-verbal skills (90.63%). The figure also highlights a significant discrepancy between students' perceived performance and the importance level across all universities. Notably, students from IARI and BHU reported nearly similar and comparatively higher perceived performance in all five communication skill dimensions than students from GBPUAT. The Spearman correlation results indicate that both academic motivation (r = -0.213, p < 0.01) and achievement motivation (r = -0.264, p < 0.01) are significantly and This suggests that students who are more motivated academically and in terms of achievement tend to perceive fewer gaps in their communication skills, that implies higher motivation levels are associated with stronger self-directed learning, persistence, and willingness to improve, which reduce the need for external training interventions.

The regression analysis further supports this relationship. Academic motivation (β = -0.671, p < 0.05) and achievement motivation (β = -0.575, p < 0.01) both showed significant negative contributions to communication skill gaps. This implies that for every one-unit increase in academic and achievement motivation, the perceived communication skill gap decreases by 0.671 and 0.575 units, respectively. The results highlight that students with higher motivation levels tend to report fewer communication skill gaps, reinforcing the idea that motivated students are more proactive in practicing, refining, and applying communication-related academic activities nal such as presentations, discussions, and scientific writing, which can contribute to the development of communication and professional competencies. These findings are consistent with existing literature. Schunk et al. (2014) [19] and Pintrich & De Groot (1990) [14] emphasized that motivated learners are more likely to adopt effective learning strategies, engage in practice, and overcome skill deficits. Similarly, Ryan and Deci's (2000) [17] Self-Determination Theory suggests that intrinsic and achievement-oriented motivation fosters competence development, including communication abilities. The significant negative relationship in this study therefore underlines the importance of enhancing students' motivation as part of communication training programs in agricultural universities. Tailored interventions that integrate motivation-building strategies-such as goal-setting, feedback, and recognition-could be particularly effective in narrowing communication skill gaps. The multiple linear regression analysis provides further insights into the factors that contribute to communication skill gaps. The adjusted R-square value 0.75 suggests that the independent variables collectively explain a substantial portion of the variance in communication skills needs. The significant negative contribution of variables such as academic performance, mother's education, empathy, selfesteem, and self-confidence along with Academic and Achievement motivation supports the notion that students with higher levels of these traits experience fewer communication skill deficits. Navani et al. (2015) [12] reported that 80 per cent of employers required agricultural graduates to have excellent interpersonal, reading, comprehension, and listening skills. Critical thinking and empathy were deemed essential by almost all respondents. [12,25] . The negative association observed between motivation and communication skill gaps suggests that students with higher levels of academic and achievement motivation tend to report fewer perceived communication deficiencies. This www.extensionjournal.com finding aligns with Self-Determination Theory, which emphasizes that intrinsically motivated learners demonstrate greater persistence, self-regulation, and engagement in academic tasks (Deci & Ryan, 2000) [3] . Students who are motivated to achieve academic success may actively seek opportunities to improve their communication abilities through presentations, academic writing, and collaborative learning activities. Similarly, Achievement Motivation Theory suggests that individuals with strong achievement orientation tend to set higher goals and continuously strive for performance improvement (McClelland, 1961) [9] . Such motivational tendencies may encourage students to practice and refine communication skills, thereby reducing perceived training needs. The absence of significant differences in motivation levels across the three universities suggests that motivational orientations among postgraduate agricultural students may be influenced more by individual characteristics than by institutional factors. Previous studies have also indicated that personal attributes such as goal orientation, selfefficacy, and intrinsic interest play a stronger role in shaping motivation than institutional context alone (Schunk et al., 2014) [19] . This finding implies that communication training interventions designed to enhance motivation could potentially be applied across different agricultural universities. The institutions represent different organizational structures, including a deemed university, a state agricultural university, and a central university with an agricultural faculty. These institutions differ in terms of academic culture, research orientation, and exposure to communication-related academic activities. However, postgraduate agricultural programs typically share common academic requirements such as thesis writing, seminar presentations, and research dissemination activities. These shared expectations may contribute to relatively similar motivational orientations among students across institutions. Nevertheless, institutional environments can influence the availability of structured opportunities for communication practice, such as seminar systems, writing support programs, and extension engagement activities (Boyle, 2012) [1] . From a practical perspective, the results highlight the importance of integrating communication skill development with motivation-enhancing strategies in agricultural education. [1] . Future research may incorporate objective assessments of communication competencies and longitudinal approaches to better understand how motivation and communication skills evolve during postgraduate training.

Limitations

The study relies on self-reported assessments of communication competencies, which reflect students' perceived skill levels rather than objective communication performance. Self-perception measures may be influenced by factors such as over-or under-estimation of one's abilities and social desirability bias. Consequently, the Training Need Index calculated in this study represents perceived communication training needs among students. However, given the cross-sectional nature of the study, the results should be interpreted as indicating associations rather than causal relationships between motivational orientations and perceived communication skill gaps. Future research may complement perception-based assessments with objective measures of communication performance, such as evaluation of presentation skills, scientific writing assessments, or instructor-based communication competency ratings.

Conclusion

The present study highlights the important role of academic www.extensionjournal.com motivation and achievement motivation in shaping communication training needs among postgraduate students in higher agricultural education. The findings indicate that a considerable proportion of students exhibit low to moderate levels of motivation, which may influence the presence of communication skill gaps, particularly in writing and speaking competencies. The Training Need Index analysis revealed that these two domains represent the most prominent training needs, reflecting their critical importance in research dissemination, extension communication, and professional engagement. The correlation and regression analyses further indicate a significant negative association between motivational orientation and perceived communication training needs. Students with higher levels of academic and achievement motivation tend to report fewer communication skill gaps, suggesting that motivated learners may be more selfdirected, persistent, and proactive in refining their communication abilities. These findings emphasize that motivation functions not only as an internal driver of learning but also as an important factor associated with the development of professional competencies among agricultural graduates. The study therefore underscores the need for agricultural universities to adopt holistic training approaches that integrate communication skill development with motivationenhancing strategies. Initiatives such as goal-setting exercises, mentoring programs, constructive feedback mechanisms, and recognition-based learning environments can strengthen students' motivation while simultaneously improving their communication competencies. Strengthening both motivation and communication skills can enhance the ability of postgraduate students to effectively disseminate research findings, engage with farming communities, and contribute to extension, policy dialogue, and industry collaboration. Overall, integrating motivational support with structured communication training can help develop achievementoriented and communicatively competent agricultural professionals capable of addressing the complex challenges facing the agricultural sector and supporting the broader agricultural innovation system.

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