Revalorizing indigenous sea salt production within the blue economy framework: Livelihood resilience and policy perspectives from Mandarmani Coast, West Bengal

Introduction

The coastal region of Mandarmani, located in the Purba Medinipur district of West Bengal, has long been shaped by its relationship with the sea. Among its diverse coastal economies, traditional sea salt production once held a prominent place, sustaining the livelihoods of local communities through low-tech, eco-friendly artisanal practices. Historically rooted in the indigenous knowledge systems of the Malangis and coastal cultivators, sea salt production in this region was not only a source of employment but also a cultural expression of resilience, adaptation, and self-sufficiency. In recent decades, however, traditional salt manufacturing has experienced a sharp and alarming decline. The unregulated expansion of coastal tourism, land-use transformation for aquaculture, and increasing salinization have encroached upon salt pan lands. Simultaneously, weak infrastructural support, lack of branding and market access, and poor mechanization have eroded the economic viability of small-scale salt producers. Compounding this decline is the ineffective implementation of welfare and livelihood schemes, such as the Namak Mazdoor Awas Yojana (NMAY), Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) policies, and other social protection frameworks intended to support salt workers. As a result, the artisanal salt economy of Mandarmani stands at the brink of extinction.

At the national level, India is the third-largest salt producer globally, with Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and Rajasthan contributing over 90% of the output. However, coastal West Bengal, despite its rich historical legacy, is marginally represented in current salt industry statistics and policy focus. In the global discourse on the blue economy, which promotes sustainable use of marine resources for economic growth and livelihood enhancement, traditional salt-making remains an underutilized domain. Its potential to contribute to food security, climate adaptation, biodiversity conservation, and rural employment is largely overlooked in favor of industrial-scale alternatives. This research paper situates the crisis of Mandarmani's traditional salt sector within this larger context. It seeks to assess the challenges faced by the salt-making communities from a bottom-up perspective and to explore the policy, economic, and ecological factors behind the decline. Through a field-based methodology combining participatory tools, stakeholder interviews, GPS mapping, and policy audits, the paper attempts to bridge the gap between grassroots realities and top-down policy frameworks. By doing so, this study contributes to the ongoing conversations on sustainable coastal development, livelihood diversification, and inclusive blue economy strategies. It argues that the revival of traditional salt production is not merely about economic rehabilitation, but also about reclaiming cultural identity, promoting gender equity, and advancing environmental stewardship. Repositioning artisanal salt production as a component of West Bengal's blue economy could offer a pathway for building local resilience in the face of climate risks, economic marginalization, and socio-environmental disruptions.

Statement of the Problem

The traditional sea salt industry in Mandarmani, once a thriving livelihood source for coastal communities, is in rapid decline. The confluence of unregulated coastal tourism, land conversion for aquaculture, saline water intrusion, and a lack of institutional support has led to the abandonment of salt pans, erosion of artisanal knowledge, and loss of employment for vulnerable populations, particularly women and seasonal laborers. Despite national policies like the Namak Mazdoor Awas Yojana (NMAY), Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) norms, and various state-led social protection initiatives, the lived experiences of salt workers reflect a different reality, one marked by poverty, seasonal job insecurity, and gendered exploitation. Additionally, policy frameworks have failed to recognize the socio-economic and ecological significance of traditional salt production in West Bengal's blue economy discourse. There exists a critical gap in research, representation, and revival strategies specific to coastal Bengal. Unlike Gujarat or Tamil Nadu, Mandarmani's salt economy remains under-researched, its decline undocumented, and its potential undervalued. Without timely intervention through community-driven, environmentally sustainable, and policy-integrated approaches, this heritage industry may soon disappear, taking with it an entire ecosystem of livelihoods, local knowledge, and coastal stewardship.

Literature Review and Estimated Research Gaps

The comprehensive literature on salt manufacturing in India presents a multidimensional perspective encompassing historical evolution, socio-economic conditions of workers, production systems, environmental sustainability, health risks, and policy interventions.

• Socio-Economic and Labour Conditions: Numerous studies highlight the precarious livelihood conditions of salt workers across major producing states like Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal. Choudhery & Rumani (2006) [8] and Yadava et al. (2006) [35] reveal widespread poverty, lack of basic amenities, and exploitative labor arrangements including child labor and seasonal employment. Studies by Sahu (2012) [28] , Bhattacharya et al. (2018) [5] , and Sagunthala & Sadasivam (2023) [27] further emphasize social insecurity, weak legal protection, and gender-specific vulnerabilities, especially for women who face lower wages and higher exposure to occupational hazards. [13,25,23] document high incidences of dermatological disorders, eye diseases, musculoskeletal pain, and heat-related illnesses due to prolonged exposure to saline and harsh weather. Safety equipment and healthcare access are notably absent, compounded by low awareness and inadequate welfare schemes.

• Production and Marketing Challenges: Small-scale salt producers face declining productivity, lack of mechanization, poor branding, and unstable market access. Murugan & Muthalagu (2017) [19] and Brahma & Sudhakar (2022) [6] detail infrastructural deficits, waterlogging, and post-harvest degradation affecting marginal producers, particularly in Tamil Nadu. Despite India being the third-largest salt producer globally, the benefits remain inequitably distributed, as stressed by Nagaraja (2015) [20] and Panigrahi et al. (2024) [22] , who call for inclusive modernization strategies and better support for cooperatives.

• Environmental

Aspects and Sustainability: Environmental studies provide strong support for solar saltworks due to their high purity, low emissions, and ecological compatibility (Sedivy, 2009) [31] . Choudhery & Rumani (2021) [9] explore hydrographic variations in salt pans, emphasizing their ecological uniqueness and potential for integrated coastal resource management. Climate change, as noted by Panigrahi et al. (2024) [22] , has already impacted salt production patterns, necessitating adaptive approaches.

• Historical and Political Economy Perspectives: A significant body of literature traces the colonial transformation of India's salt industry. Historical accounts (Sarkar, 2018; Ojha, 2023; Jana, 2024) [29,21,16] chronicle how indigenous systems were dismantled by British monopolies, particularly in Bengal's coastal regions like Tamluk and Hijli. Chatterjee (2021) [7] , Karim (2022) [17] , and Fine (2022) [14] expose the exploitative labor models imposed during the colonial era, including the infamous Inland Customs Line and excise-based taxation. Gandhi's Salt March (1930) emerges as a pivotal moment in turning salt into a symbol of resistance against imperial domination (Taylor, 2023; Balaji, 2023) [34,1] . • Gender and Social Protection: Recent studies place focus on women workers and social protection measures. Suyambulingam et al. (2023) [33] investigate gendered inequalities and implementation gaps in welfare schemes like PMJDY, CRS, and TNRLM. Findings indicate that women over 40, working early morning shifts, are particularly disadvantaged.

Awareness of legal rights remains low despite the presence of national legislations and international conventions on labour rights. [35,13,7] Gender & Caste Disaggregation Insufficient data on women and intersectionality. Limited insights on caste, class, and gender-based division of labor and discrimination.

Jana (2024); Rekha & Anandhy (2019); Suyambulingam et al. (2023) [16,32,25,33] Environmental Impact

Lacks longitudinal studies on salinity spread, wetland loss, or sea-level rise.

Ojha (2023); Choudhery & Rumani (2021); Sedivy (2009) [9,31,21]

Ecological Impact Analysis

Underexplored links between salt pan degradation, climate change, and environmental sustainability.

Ojha (2023); Choudhery & Rumani (2021); Sarkar (2018) [9,29,21] Technological Adoption

No in-depth analysis of innovation uptake or mechanization feasibility. Little analysis on modernization feasibility or techno-economic viability for small producers.

Brahma & Sudhakar (2022); Nagaraja (2015); Murugan & Muthalagu (2017) [6,19,20] Mental Health Lack of biometric, nutritional, and mental health data across saltproducing zones.

Banerjee Bhattacharya (2017, 2018); Prakash & Soris (2018) [4,23] Health Metrics Minimal biometric, nutritional, or psychological assessments of salt workers.

Banerjee Bhattacharya (2017, 2018); Prakash & Soris (2018) [4,23] Comparative Regional Studies Focus largely on Gujarat and Tamil Nadu; West Bengal underexplored. Panigrahi et al. (2024); Sarkar (2018) [22,29] Subaltern Voices & Worker's lived experiences, especially pre-Chatterjee (2021); Taylor (2023) [7,34] Oral Histories Gandhian resistance, are underrepresented.

Policy Effectiveness No measurable outcomes for schemes like NMAY, CRS, TINP, ESI, etc. Sahu (2012); BOBP-IGO (2006); Sagunthala & Sadasivam (2023) [28,27] Source: Author's Own Composition, 2025

The Study Area

The location of a study area encompasses not only its geographical coordinates but also its broader geoenvironmental characteristics, which directly or indirectly influence its landscape and ecological dynamics. The Mandarmani coastal stretch, a significant segment of coastal Bengal, stands out due to its pristine natural beauty, dynamic coastal processes, and growing anthropogenic influences.

• Geographical Coordinates: The study area is situated between 21°38'47″N -21°42′25″N latitude and 87°38′23″E -87°45′57″E longitude, making it a crucial coastal section along the Bay of Bengal.

Specific Objectives a)

To assess the socio-economic conditions and livelihood vulnerabilities of traditional salt producers in the Mandarmani coastal region. b) To evaluate the extent, causes, and spatial patterns of decline in traditional salt production using field mapping and participatory methods. c) To examine the awareness, accessibility, and effectiveness of government policies and welfare schemes related to salt worker support in the study area. d) To propose integrated revival strategies aligning traditional salt production with blue economy principles, local sustainability, and community resilience

Materials, Methods and Methodology

This study adopts a mixed-method, interdisciplinary research design that integrates qualitative, quantitative, spatial, and policy analysis to comprehensively examine the socio-economic, environmental, and governance dimensions of traditional sea salt production in the Mandarmani coastal region of West Bengal. The approach is grounded in participatory and field-based inquiry, ensuring that the voices of salt workers, especially women and marginalized communities, are central to the research.

Research Design and Approach

The study uses an exploratory and descriptive design, combining:

• Qualitative tools (oral histories, focus group discussions)

Key Informant Interviews (KIIs)

Salt workers, local elders, women's groups, panchayat members, cooperative leaders, CRZ and fisheries officials.

Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)

Conducted separately with male and female workers to understand gender-specific issues and coping strategies.

Oral Histories and Ethnographic Narratives

Collection of intergenerational stories from salt-making families, including Malangis and Agariyas (if relevant to local history).

Field Observation and Transect Walks

Observation of abandoned or active salt pans, environmental conditions, salinity spread, and land use.

b) Spatial Data Collection GPS Mapping

• Mapping of existing and defunct salt pans using handheld GPS devices. • Collection of geo-coordinates to track landscape transformation.

GIS Analysis

• Use of satellite imagery and temporal land use data (e.g., Landsat, Sentinel) to detect spatial patterns of salt pan decline and encroachment.

Ethical Considerations

• Informed consent obtained from all participants.

• Gender-sensitive and inclusive approach maintained during fieldwork. • Anonymity assured in reporting sensitive socioeconomic or health information.

Limitations

• Seasonal nature of salt production may limit year-round observation. • Historical data on salt production in Mandarmani is limited and fragmented. • Remote sensing resolution for small salt pans may pose technical challenges.

Results and Discussion

Historical Context of Salt Manufacturing and Its Decline in Midnapore including Study Area

The Midnapore coastline, primarily covering the districts of Purba Medinipur and Paschim Medinipur, was once a significant hub for salt production. The coastal saline wetlands provided an ideal environment for traditional salt pans. According to Ray (2010), salt production in this region dates back to the colonial period when British authorities regulated and taxed salt, affecting its indigenous production. However, despite state control, local production persisted until the mid-20th century when industrial and policy changes began to impact its sustainability.

Factors Contributing to the Decline Economic and Policy Constraints

The liberalization policies of the 1990s and the increased import of industrially refined salt led to a significant decline in traditional salt-making activities. As per Banerjee & Chakraborty (2015) [2] , local salt producers struggled to compete with large-scale industrial production, which benefited from better infrastructure, technology, and government incentives.

Environmental and Climatic Challenges

Coastal erosion, changing monsoon patterns, and rising sea levels have also contributed to the diminishing status of salt pans in Midnapore (Das, 2018). Erratic weather conditions have disrupted salt production cycles, reducing yields and increasing costs for small-scale producers.

Technological Disparities

Lack of technological advancement has also been a crucial factor. Traditional salt production methods involve solar evaporation techniques that are labor-intensive and timeconsuming. Sinha et al. (2020) [32] argue that without mechanization and modern processing techniques, small producers find it difficult to remain viable in a competitive market.

Socio-Economic Impact on Local Communities

The decline of salt manufacturing has directly impacted the livelihoods of thousands of workers in Midnapore. Several studies (Choudhury & Ghosh, 2021) [10] suggest that unemployment and forced migration have risen as traditional salt-making families shift to other occupations, such as fishing and small-scale trade. The lack of alternative employment opportunities has exacerbated economic distress in these coastal regions. Here's a synthesized interpretation of the sea salt manufacturing database for the project. This analysis unpacks production zones and respondents' profile of salt makers in Mandarmani and nearby coastal stretches:

• Main production areas: 38% of units are in Mandarmani surroundings, 30% in Mandarmani proper, and 24% in Silampur, identifying the region's traditional saltmaking heartlands.

• Respondent roles: 68% are direct salt manufacturers, but owners (3%) and managers (5%) are rare, revealing a predominantly labor-based livelihood. • Residential permanence: Nearly 92% have lived in the area ≥ 20 years; this is a deeply rooted traditional community, not recent migrants. The synthesized interpretation of the sea salt manufacturing database indicates the socio-demographic aspects of salt makers in the study area:

Social and Demographic Features

• Religion: 70% Hindu, 30% Muslim, a significant minority community engaged in this sector. • Caste: 32% SC, 22% OBC-A, 19% OBC-B, and just 24% UR, showing that salt manufacturing is dominated by socially marginalized groups.

• Gender: 100% male respondents, confirming a complete exclusion of women from the active salt workforce. Hotel Workers 0 0.00 6.

Education and Income

Tourism & Travel Workers 0 0.00 7.

Small Scale Business (Small shop, vendors, hawkers, etc.) 0 0.00 8.

Medium to Large Scale Business 0 0.00 9.

Private/ Non-govt. Service/ Job 0 0.00 11.

Daily The synthesized interpretation of the sea salt manufacturing database indicates the education and income aspects of salt makers in the study area.

Low education levels • 14% illiterate,

• ~74% below secondary level, • Only 5% have higher secondary, suggesting poor access to formal education limits opportunities for skill development or alternative livelihoods.

Income vulnerability

• 54% earn ≤₹7,500/month, • Only 11% earn >₹10,000; this signals chronic economic marginality. • Family sizes: Over half (51%) have 4-6 members, adding economic pressure. The above database and analysis show the employment dynamics of the salt manufacturing workers in the Mandarmani landscape.

Employment Dynamics

Salt work is highly seasonal:

• 62% work 6-9 months/year, • 11% work <3 months/year.

• Most (43%) work 15-20 days/month, reflecting limited, intermittent income. • Alternative livelihoods: During off-season, they shift mainly to aquaculture (35%) and fishing (24%), but many (24%) survive as daily laborers, highlighting a lack of stable options.

Institutional Neglect

The above data table and diagram indicates the schemes or subsidies for salt producing workers from the end of government. From the field survey, it is seen that although there are some schemes or subsidies for salt manufacturing workers in other states of India, in the case of our state including the study area, no kind of govt. facilities is observed like schemes, projects, subsidies, etc. 100% of respondents have reported never receiving any government scheme/subsidy, underscoring absolute policy failure to support this traditional economy. Enforcement for more income from the family 7 18.92 9.

Causes for coming in Salt Manufacturing

Provoking/ inspiring from friends/ relatives/ neighbours/ others to engage in 5 13.51 10.

Acute family crisis in terms of poverty from different dimensions 10 27.03 11.

Own interest to engage in it for more income and improving livelihood 7 18.92 12.

Seasonal support as life earning way and opportunity The above data table and diagram show the responsible causes of salt manufacturing workers for coming into this occupation.

Top reasons include

• 57%: Habituation/traditional work • 43%: Job at home, family/generational links • 41%: Family orientation towards salt work

• 29%: Seasonal earning opportunity Factors like poverty crisis (27%) and lack of alternatives (19%) show salt making is often a livelihood of compulsion, not choice. The above table reflects the impacts of tourism and other economies on salt livelihood. As per analysis the major impacts are:

Impacts of Tourism and Other Economies on Salt Livelihood

Negative impacts Land & displacement

• 56% cite land conversion to aquaculture, • 19% high encroachment from tourism, • 30% face no legal recognition for their lands.

Environmental

• Climate-induced stress affects 27% highly, • Salinity and brine contamination seen as low risks by most, but still present.

Socio-economic vulnerability

• 62% report intergenerational occupation loss • 32%+ face seasonal income loss • 97% cite no financial safety net, compounding vulnerability.

Cultural erosion

Nearly half fear the disappearance of traditional knowledge.

Market challenges

• 49% see unfair competition,

• 46% suffer from middleman exploitation. Strongly opportunity-driven; leverage strengths to capitalize on external growth. +1.0 to +2.9

Policy failures

Moderate strength, but needs improvement in weaknesses. 0 to +0.9

Weak position, urgent improvement needed. Below 0

Critical threats and weaknesses outweigh potential. The above SWOT Strategic Index (SSI) of +2.10 suggests that coastal sea salt manufacturing in Mandarmani region reflects a moderate strength, but needs improvement in weaknesses. Hence, its weaknesses (like outdated technology, poor working conditions, limited storage and packaging, financial insecurity and lack of market access) and threats (like land encroachment, environmental stress, market competition, loss of traditional knowledge and labor migration) should be addressed and managed properly with revival policy and initiative based community participation for its superb upgrading like the past.

Although it has the highest strength index (SI = 3.30) among traditional livelihoods, severe weaknesses (WI = 2.60) like outdated technology, poor market access, and threats (TI = 1.60) from tourism/aquaculture encroachment have driven a massive decline. • Opportunities: 41% favor artisanal branding; 30% see potential in salt heritage tourism; but pessimism dominates without policy intervention.

Recommendations as per SWOT Analysis

Based on the above SWOT strategic assessment, a set of policy recommendations and a corresponding scientific policy framework are tailored to the revival of traditional sea salt production in Mandarmani under a blue economy strategy. This framework aligns with your SWOT analysis, SWOT Strategic Index (SSI = +2.10), and observed field realities.

Conclusion

The decline of traditional sea salt production along the Integrating traditional salt-making into blue economy frameworks not only enhances climate resilience and food security but also reaffirms cultural heritage and social equity in vulnerable coastal regions. In conclusion, the future of Mandarmani's salt economy lies in a holistic, inclusive, and sustainability-driven revival strategy -one that positions artisanal salt production not as a relic of the past, but as a resilient pillar of a just and locally rooted blue economy.

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