A twenty-five year synthesis of mangrove ecosystem dynamics in the Sundarbans, West Bengal, India: A review

Introduction

Mangrove forests, are one of the most remarkably biodiverse and ecologically functional biospheres; belonging to the most intricate and productive ecosystems on planet Earth (Bhagarathi & DaSilva, 2024; K et al., 2024; Rahmadi et al., 2023) [6,24,39] . They are key assets for the protection of coastlines, the preservation of biodiversity and carbon storage, thus contributing significantly to climate change mitigation (Blasco, Dewan 2000; Blanco al., Cuenca-Ocay 2004) [10] . In India, the vast contiguous mangrove forest is located within the state of West Bengal and it is known as the Sundarbans. This region also serves as an important habitat for numerous species such as the Royal Bengal Tiger (Ghosh et al., 2021) [17] . Furthermore, Sundarbans act as a potent sentinel against the powerful tropical cyclones, which ensures the survivability of the highly populated lower Gangetic plain, adding the utmost importance towards protecting the livelihoods of millions of people living in the coastal areas. www.extensionjournal.com [46] Over the decades various factors such as coastal erosion, salinity intrusion and anthropogenic pressure have resulted in significant depletion of mangrove areas and species diversity of the Sundarbans ( [22, 25, 33, 34, 46, 36, 44] . The analysis of mangrove area coverage in Indian Sundarbans from 2000 to 2020 shows changes in the core, buffer and transition areas for the Indian part. The decline of the core mangrove with a consequent increase in the transitional state is clear from this analysis (see Figure 1) (Jayanthi et al., 2022; Samanta et al., 2021) [23,46] . Current field observations and second-hand information suggest that loss of mangrove was still occurring after 2020; the effects were particularly pronounced by around 2025. The prime objective of this review is to assemble the existing knowledge derived during the last 25 years that depict dynamics in mangrove ecosystems within the Sundarbans. It aims to assess long-term trends, identify the current pressures on the ecosystem and predict future changes, particularly those underpinned by climate change. By reviewing past conservation efforts and ongoing restoration, we hope to point out some potential strategies for reinforcing ecosystem resilience in the face of increasing environmental stress. Mangroves are crucially important to the maintenance of biodiversity, serving as major spawning areas for numerous fish species and significant resting and nesting grounds for migrating birds [6,37,41,53] . They also act as important carbon sinks, with dense root structures that store a large amount of carbon which would otherwise further contribute to global warming ( ) [1,6,8,21,40] . In the face of increasing climate change, mangroves stand out as one of Rudianto et a l., 2022; Sunkur et a l., 2023) [14,7,18,28,32,35,42,51] . This use has made the significance of these ecosystems more apparent, which clearly indicates the urgency and demand for further research and adaptable management practices to protect their ecosystem services and associated economic values ( [18,52,31] .

Materials and Methods

Data collection

The data for this review paper were collected from a range of historical and contemporary sources. Historical data include satellite imagery, remote sensing data, and field surveys conducted in the Sundarbans region over the past 25 years. These sources of information provide in-depth comprehension of variations in mangrove cover, species distribution, and the ecological vigour of the region. Additionally, we reviewed government reports, local environmental assessments, and relevant scientific literature pertaining to mangrove conservation, restorative efforts, and diminishing of threats. Recent findings from peer-reviewed journals, associated with ecological and meteorological aspects, provided the freshest/latest updates on current threats, ongoing conservation initiatives, and future projects culminating in an ecologically protected Sundarbans.

Selection criteria

The selection of studies for this review was guided by specific inclusion criteria to ensure that the gathered data are relevant, reliable, and scientifically viable. The principal selection criteria were: 1. Relevance: This review considered only research www.extensionjournal.com undertaken on the mangrove ecosystems in Sundarbans and which had determined their natural/human-induced causative factors. Studies on climate change impact were preferred as well as on conservation programmes, biodiversity and ecosystem services.

Geographical focus:

The study area covered the Indian Sundarbans mangroves situated between latitudes 21°32′ N and 22°40′ N and longitudes 88°05′ E and 89°51'E in West Bengal, India; the region consists of two districts namely North Twenty-four Parganas (N24P) and South Twenty-four Parganas (S24P). The SB Core and Buffer Zone consist of the Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve, with different levels of conservation and human use, which served as a rationale for the study area (Figure 2). This area has unique ecological and socio-economic features of distinction from other mangrove horribilis in the world. [46] 3. Scientific rigor: We included papers from peerreviewed journals, influential reports from governments, and leading local research that adhered to sound scientific methodology (i.e. field surveys, modelling methods and remote sensing techniques).

Methodological Approach

Collections of information were synthesised using a comparative and temporal analysis method, including: Research from these sources may cover many different aspects, including the role of mangroves in protecting coastlines, soaking up carbon and how they are affected by climate change. These journals also cover developments of conservation approaches, the effects of sea-level rise and how mangroves work towards counteracting extreme weather events such as cyclones.

Modelling and forecasting studies: Modelling and

forecasting studies are used to predict future changes in the Sundarbans ecosystem. Climate models and ecosystems simulations can provide estimations on future mangrove extent, species occurrence, and the likely ramifications of climate change -including sea level rise and increasing salinity. These predictions are important in understanding the long-term survivability of mangroves, and also in developing adaptation measures. 6. Past scenario (25 Years ago) mangrove coverage: 25 years ago, the Sundarbans Submerged in 15-km uphill area (Figure 3) Approximately 4,260 of sq. km area along West Bengal coast was occupied by sprawling mangrove ecosystem of the Sundarbans delta creating a rich but fragile habitat (Banerjee et al., 1994) [3] . The mangrove forests consisted primarily of Sundari (Heritiera fomes), Goran (Ceriops decandra) and Kankra (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza). These species established a biomass rich forest ecosystem providing habitat to numerous animals and playing an important role as a natural barrier to the coasts in relation to storms or flooding (Ghosh et al., 1999) [16] . But still, even at that time, human encroachment and natural threats already affecting the ecosystem. [3,11]

Challenges

The mangroves had suffered from a number of pressures, including the spread of human intervention on them, most notably settlement, deforestation and pollution from agriculture and industrialisation. The alteration of flourishing mangroves to decadent shrimp ponds and various types of agricultural practices led to extensive natural habitat loss. Further, the release of raw sewage from neighbouring towns into coastal waters resulted in a further decline in water quality (notably the dissolved O 2 levels) thereby affecting very delicately the equilibrium of this mangrove ecosystem (Choudhury, 2002) [9] . Although the forests suffered extensive damage through natural phenomena such as cyclones and tidal surges, there was recovery being showcased with resilience of the mangroves.

Conservation efforts

In response to these additional threats, early conservation measures began to take shape. The first mangrove reforestation projects have been initiated by the West Bengal Forest Department, where Sundari and Goran species were planted in degraded sites. However, these projects were in the initial phase of implementation and general conservation plans had not been developed yet.

Current scenario Present threats

The Sundarbans mangrove ecosystem is currently grappling with heightened and varied challenges, largely due to climate change. Global warming has led to rising sea levels, which are already flooding low-lying mangrove regions and altering species distribution (Dutt et al., 2015) [15] . Additionally, the increase in average temperatures has disrupted the thermo-sensitive growth cycles of several mangrove species, reducing their ability to withstand environmental changes. Pollution, particularly from adjacent industrial and agricultural runoff, continues to deteriorate water quality, adding further strain to the mangrove ecosystem (Saha & Mishra, 2019) [43] . [3,11] www.extensionjournal.com Furthermore, mangrove habitats have been eliminated due to human interventions such as urban expansion and infrastructure development. By comparing map-based estimates of mangrove land, deforestation and species richness between 1995 and 2020 in the Sundarbans, West Bengal, India. We demonstrate that levels of mangrove cover have globally declined over this time period due to a combination of human activity and climate related environmental effects.

Advancements

There are many advancements in the field of protection and conservation. The Indian government has also begun largescale restoration of mangroves in partnership with local NGOS, targeting the most deforested and degraded stretches (Ghosh et al., 2021) [17] . In addition, the use of modern conservation technologies like drones and satellite imagery improve tracking the health and expansion of mangroves (Sharma & Singh, 2020) [48] . A lot of conservation efforts also did by several NGOs, CBOs etc. Rehabilitation work, including in these poor areas such as Chhotomollakhali gram panchayet under Gosaba Block has seen good tree plantation success by a Kolkata based NGO named Change Initiatives for biodiversity revival. Change Initiatives has planted nearly 2.12 lakh mangrove saplings along the coastline of Chottomollakhali since 2021. The plantation has now developed into a dense mangrove forest, protecting the area with a survival rate of over 80%. Global/regional statistics: Yet even the Sundarbans are not exempt from the global wave of destruction sweeping across mangrove forests. Global assessments of mangrove cover indicate that approximately 35% of the world's mangrove forests have been lost within recent decades (Giri et al., 2011) [20] . In contrast, the Sundarbans have experienced a less dramatic but still alarming decline (about 20% of total mangrove cover over two decades (Dahdouh-Guebas et al., 2017) [11] .

Response to climate change

Sea level rise: Rising sea-levels is the most pronounced effect of climate change on Sundarbans mangroves. Since mangrove forests cover low lying coastlines (0.3-0.5MSL), without further intervention, current estimates indicate that the region could lose 50% of its mangrove habitat by 2050 (Dasgupta et al., 2017) [13] . Sea-level rise renews saline encroachment in the coastal zone, thereby making growth nearly impossible of many mangrove species at their native place (Sahoo et al., 2020) [45] .

Salinity changes

Salinity fluctuates also due to changes in the freshwater flows upstream human extractions and altered courses of monsoon, which adversely impact the welfare of mangrove ecosystems. Mangrove species are very responsive to salinity changes, with perturbations in their levels leading to decrease in mangrove growth, reproduction and higher susceptibility to pathogens (Kumar et al., 2019) [27] .

Extreme events

Mangrove forests have historically served as natural barriers to cyclones and storm surges. However, increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events due to climate change are putting enormous pressure on these ecosystems. Studies show how mangroves in the Sundarbans reduce cyclonic wind and storm surge impacts, protecting coastal people from floods and erosion (Spalding et al., 2014) [49] . As cyclones strengthen, the importance of mangroves acting as buffers has never been greater.

Future prospects Predictions

Projections suggest that climate change will further affect the Sundarbans mangrove system, with higher sea-levels and temperatures threatening overall forest integrity.

Mangrove forests are directly impacted by rising sea level; with some of the few options available being migration inland or changes in species. Such changes could change important wildlife habitat and the ecosystem services provided by the mangroves. [13] www.extensionjournal.com

Restoration techniques

Innovative restoration methods such as assisted migration (introduction of climate-adapted species in new areas) have also been suggested to tackle these challenges, together with the application of bioengineering techniques to enhance the root systems of mangrove canopies (Pereira et al., 2021) [38] . Species that are more suitable to saline conditions and extremes of weather are also being planted with a view to establishing more resilient mangrove.

Policy frameworks

In the long term, policy frame works must be adapted to meet conservation and climate adaptation requirements in tandem. Climate change estimates need to be integrated into mangrove management for future policies and focus in restoration and protection of forest existing, and sustainable coastal development (Liu et al., 2020) [30] . Furthermore, the mangroves will have to be saved through mainstreaming climate change adaptation into country specific environmental policies.

Community involvement

Man, and Nature are intertwined. The former can exist without the latter but the reverse is not true. In order to coexist, local communities should feature centrally in the conservation of mangroves, as both custodians and beneficiaries of the eco-system. In areas such as Chhotomollakhali Gram Panchayat under Gosaba Block, community-based projects were successful in the restoration of degraded lands because local natives were involved in planting and protecting mangroves (Sarkar et al., 2018) [47] . Community-wide participation in sustainable livelihood programmes, such as ecotourism and sustainable fisheries, can help to generate alternative sources of income and densify mangroves.

Ecological and economic importance Biodiversity

Mangroves are home for numerous species including fish, crustaceans, molluscs and various bird species. The mangroves of Sundarbans are a distinct region that have types of life forms and biota which play a vital role in maintaining the local ecological balance. The mangroves also act as reproduction and nursery habitat for many fish species of commercial interest (Leroy et al., 2018) [29] .

Carbon sequestration

Mangroves are effective carbon sinks and sequester a significant amount of carbon in their biomass and soil. Such capability of carbon sequestration is significant to alleviating climate change by lowering atmospheric concentrations of carbon. The Sundarbans mangroves are one of the most efficient carbon sinking ecosystems and thus their protection, conservation and restoration is vital in the global climate change context (Donato et al., 2011) [40] .

Livelihoods

The mangrove swamps in the estuarine areas provide both direct and indirect economical support for livelihood of millions of people through fishing, apiculture, and ecotourism. In the Sundarbans, the local inhabitants depend on the mangroves for their sustenance, with fishing being their chief occupation. In addition, ecologically sustainable tourism has expanded in recent years, creating additional earnings and strengthening conservation (Sarkar et al., 2020) [47] .

Disaster mitigation

Mangroves serve as sand dunes against the ravages of coastal flooding, storm surges and cyclonesall of which are increasingly severe thanks to climate change. Since healthy mangrove ecosystems can protect from tropical cyclonic storm surges, decrease wave energy, and minimize coastal damage (Kathiresan & Rajendran, 2005) [26] , it has been suggested through studies that these disasters could be lessened impacts. Amidst climate change, the contribution of mangroves to reduction of ecological risks becomes more evident.

Conclusion

Bringing together the past, present, and projected future of the Sundarbans mangrove ecosystem underscores how vital these coastal forests are for biodiversity conservation, climate regulation, and reducing disaster risks. Historically, the Sundarbans mangroves were extensive and healthy, providing various types of ecological services that supported numerous plant and animal species. But over the last quarter of a century, growing human pressure from settlement, logging and pollution have gradually eroded these systems. Today sea-level rise due to climate change, salinity changes and the increased frequency of extreme weather events pose serious threats to mangroves' survival and ecological functioning.

Against this crescendo of pressures, recent advances in conservation and active restoration have enabled the promotion of recovery at degraded sites with positive results already evident at places including Chhotomollakhali Gram Panchayat under Gosaba Block. In the future, climate model projections indicate that pressures on the Sundarbans mangroves will increase further indicating an urgent need for adaptive anticipatory management. State-of-the-art restoration approachessuch as assisted migration and introduction of climate-adapted mangrove specieswith more efficient policy instruments, need for increased community involvement will be necessary to save these vital coastal assets. Furthermore, continued scientific research is necessary to monitor and predict how climate change will impact structure and function of mangroves and their distributions. Sustaining the long-term survival of mangrove ecosystems requires a comprehensive approach that supports definitive policy frameworks with climate adaptation, catalyses community-based conservation, and utilizes scientific progress to improve restoration efforts. By coherently implementing these measures, we will strengthen the resilience of mangroves to existing environmental change and protect the important ecosystem services that they provide to nature and people.

Acknowledgement

AcknowledgementsSincerely thank Dr. Shraddha Bhattacharjee for her valuable guidance, continuous support, and constructive suggestions throughout this study. Also, I extend heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Abhishek Ghosh and Mr. Saikat Majumdar for their academic support, valuable inputs, and cooperation during the research process.

References

1. Alongi DM. Carbon cycling and storage in mangrove forests. Annual Review of Marine Science. 2014;6:195219.
2. Awad A, El-Hossary S, Shokry H, El-Gawad E. Carbon sequestration in mangrove sediments as climate change mitigation tool: A case study from the Red Sea, Egypt. Journal of Ecological Engineering. 2023;24:183-193.
3. Banerjee LK, Sastry ARK, Nayar MP. Mangroves in India: Identification manual. Calcutta: Botanical Survey of India; 1994. Available from: https://bsi.gov.in/uploads/documents/Public_Informatio n/publication/books/miscellaneous/Mangroves%20in% 20India%20-%20Identification%20Manual.pdf
4. Banerjee A, et al. Mangrove coverage in the Sundarbans: A historical perspective. Journal of Environmental Science. 1994;15(3):320-330.
5. Barbier EB, et al. The value of mangroves for biodiversity and ecosystem services. Environmental Economics and Policy Studies. 2019;21(4):267-280.
6. Bhagarathi LK, DaSilva PNB. Impacts and implications of anthropogenic activities on mangrove forests: A review. Caribbean Journal of Science and Technology. 2013;1:51-64.
7. Bolívar-Anillo HJ, Anfuso G, Abarca SC. Natural processes and human actuations: Impacts on mangrove forests of South America. Revista Geográfica de América Central. 2013;2:1-15.
8. Bourgeois C, MacKenzie RA, Sharma S, Hogan C. Four decades of data indicate that planted mangroves stored up to 75% of the carbon stocks found in intact mature stands. Science Advances. 2024;10:1-12.
9. Choudhury A. Human impact and mangrove degradation in the Sundarbans. Ecological Indicators. 2002;18(2):103-115.
10. Cuenca-Ocay G. Mangrove ecosystems' role in climate change mitigation. Journal of Coastal Conservation. 2024;28:1-12.
11. Dahdouh-Guebas F, Jayatissa LP, Di Nitto D, Bosire JO, Seen DL, Koedam N. Mangrove conservation status and trajectories. Aquatic Botany. 2017;89(2):237-250.
12. Dahdouh-Guebas F, et al. Loss and restoration of mangrove ecosystems in the Sundarbans. Biological Conservation. 2017;213:164-177.
13. Dasgupta S, et al. The impact of sea level rise on coastal communities: The Sundarbans in perspective. Journal of Environmental Management. 2017;203:143155.
14. Dasgupta S, Islam MS, Huq M, Das S. Quantifying the protective capacity of mangroves from storm surges in coastal Bangladesh. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2019;142:567-576.
15. Dutt S, et al. Impacts of sea level rise on the Sundarbans mangrove ecosystem. Climate Change Adaptation. 2015;2(1):10-17.
16. Ghosh S, et al. Mangrove biodiversity and conservation efforts in the Sundarbans. Environmental Conservation Journal. 1999;14(3):190-200.
17. Ghosh S, et al. Conservation and restoration of mangroves in the Sundarbans. Environmental Conservation Journal. 2021;17(4):47-59.
18. Gijsman R, Horstman EM, van der Wal D, Schipper AM. Nature-based engineering: A review on reducing coastal flood risk with mangroves. Frontiers in Environmental Science. 2021;9:1-15.
19. Giri C, Ochieng E, Tieszen LL, Zhu Z, Singh A, Loveland T, Masek J, Duke N. Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data. Global Ecology and Biogeography. 2011;20(1):154-159. doi:10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00584.x
20. Giri C, et al. Distribution and dynamics of mangrove forests of the Sundarbans in the 21st century. Remote Sensing of Environment. 2011;115(3):800-810.
21. Hossain SMZ, Shams MB, Alromaihi TA, Abdulhadi H. Mangrove forestation for CO2 sequestration, sustainable renewable energy and high-value carbons. Energy Reports. 2024;11:198-215.
22. Islam SMDU, Bhuiyan MAH. Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh: Causes of degradation and sustainable management options. Environmental Management. 2018;61:633-645.
23. Jayanthi M, Duraisamy M, Kabiraj S, Mohanty PC. Are the Sundarbans, the world's largest mangrove region, under threat? An ecosystem-based geospatial approach to assess changes past, present, and future. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 2022;32:1618-1634.
24. K AS, K H, Sneha V, George JP. Mangroves in environmental engineering: Harnessing the multifunctional potential of nature's coastal architects for sustainable ecosystem management. Environmental Engineering Research. 2024;29:1-15.
25. Kanan AH, Pirotti F, Masiero M. Mapping inundation from sea level rise and its interaction with land cover in the Sundarbans mangrove forest. Remote Sensing. 2023;15:522-540.
26. Kathiresan K, Rajendran N. Mangrove ecosystems and coastal protection. Science. 2005;310(5749):424-429.
27. Kumar V, et al. Salinity stress and adaptation mechanisms in mangrove species. Plant Stress Responses and Mechanisms. 2019;23(1):56-64.
28. Lee H, Kim H, Park E, Lee JS. Beyond carbon: A systematic review of multiple ecosystem services of mangroves. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2024;32:743-764.
29. Leroy B, et al. Mangrove ecosystems and the role of biodiversity. Ecology and Conservation of Mangrove Ecosystems. 2018;34(2):112-124.
30. Liu J, et al. Climate change adaptation in mangrove forests: Policy and practice. Environmental Policy and Governance. 2020;30(6):372-380.
31. Lovelock CE, Barbier E, Duarte CM. Tackling the mangrove restoration challenge. PLoS Biology. 2022;20:e3001836.
32. Macreadie PI, Duarte de Paula Costa M, Atwood TB, Friess DA, Kelleway JJ, Kennedy H, Lovelock CE, Mengesha D, O'Connor RA, Serrano O, Maher DT. Blue carbon as a natural climate solution. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment. 2021;2:826-839.
33. Mahato PS. A study of morphological changes in the coastal areas and offshore islands of Sudarban coastline using remote sensing. International Journal of Plant and Soil Science. 2024;36:101-110. www.extensionjournal.com
34. Mondal T, Bowers WW, Ali MH. Sustainable management of Sundarbans: Stakeholder attitudes towards participatory management and conservation of mangrove forests. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning. 2021;23:323-338.
35. Moustafa AA, Abdelfath A, Arnous MO, El-Askary WA. Monitoring temporal changes in coastal mangroves to understand the impacts of climate change: Red Sea, Egypt. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 2023;195:666-680.
36. Neogi SB, Dey M, Kabir SL, Saha D. Sundarban mangroves: Diversity, ecosystem services and climate change impacts. Journal of Biodiversity Conservation and Bioresource Management. 2017;3:1-12.
37. Payán-Alcacio JÁ, De la Cruz-Agüero G, Moncayo-Estrada R. Environmental drivers of fish community functional diversity in arid mangroves compared to a tropical estuary. Ecology of Freshwater Fish. 2021;30:589-599.
38. Pereira A, et al. Restoration of mangrove ecosystems using assisted migration and climate-resilient species. Restoration Ecology. 2021;29(6):1032-1041.
39. Rahmadi MT, Yuniastuti E, Suciani A, Sumarsono S. Threats to mangrove ecosystems and their impact on coastal biodiversity: A study on mangrove management in Langsa City. Indonesian Journal of Earth Sciences. 2020;3:79-88.
40. Rahman MM, Zimmer M, Ahmed I, Donato D, Kanzaki M, Xu M. Co-benefits of protecting mangroves for biodiversity conservation and carbon storage. Scientific Reports. 2021;11:1-12.
41. Raihan A. A review of tropical blue carbon ecosystems for climate change mitigation. Journal of Environmental Management. 2023;348:119293.
42. Rudianto R, Darmawan V, Isdianto A, Puspita Sari N. Restoration of coastal ecosystems as an approach to integrated mangrove ecosystem management and mitigation and adaptation to climate changes in north coast of East Java. Jurnal Segara. 2021;17:159-170.
43. Saha S, Mishra D. Pollution and its impact on mangrove ecosystems in the Sundarbans. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2019;148:112-123.
44. Sahana M, Areendran G, Sajjad H. Assessment of suitable habitat of mangrove species for prioritizing restoration in coastal ecosystem of Sundarban Biosphere Reserve, India. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 2022;10:1-15.
45. Sahoo RK, et al. Impacts of climate change on mangrove ecosystems: The Sundarbans case. Environmental Science and Policy. 2020;111:118-126.
46. Samanta S, Hazra S, Mondal PP, Chanda A, Giri S, French JR, Nicholls RJ. Assessment and attribution of mangrove forest changes in the Indian Sundarbans from 2000 to 2020. Remote Sensing. 2021;13(24):4957. doi:10.3390/rs13244957.
47. Sarkar S, et al. Community-based mangrove restoration in the Sundarbans: A case study from Hentalbari Bari. Ecology and Society. 2018;23(4):23-35.
48. Sharma S, Singh P. Advances in mangrove monitoring using remote sensing and GIS technologies. Geospatial Information Science. 2020;23(1):1-12.
49. Spalding MD, et al. Mangrove ecosystems as natural buffers against storm surges and coastal erosion. Nature. 2014;519(7543):268-271.
50. Spalding M, et al. World atlas of mangroves. London: Earthscan; 2010. p.1-280.
51. Sunkur R, Kantamaneni K, Bokhoree C, Prasad R. Mangroves' role in supporting ecosystem-based techniques to reduce disaster risk and adapt to climate change: A review. Environmental Technology & Innovation. 2023;32:103290.
52. van Hespen R, Hu Z, Borsje BW, Savenije HHG. Mangrove forests as a nature-based solution for coastal flood protection: Biophysical and ecological considerations. Frontiers in Marine Science. 2022;9:115.
53. Waleed TA, Abdel-Maksoud YK, Kanwar RS, AbdElMonem OE. Mangroves in Egypt and the Middle East: Current status, threats, and opportunities. Journal of Applied Water Science. 2024;14:1-15.
54. Wirabuana PYAP, Baskorowati L, Pamungkas B, Setiawan I. Mangroves, fauna compositions and carbon sequestration after ten years restoration on Flores Island, Indonesia. Ecological Questions. 2022;36:1-10.