Food Consumption Pattern and Socio-Cultural Beliefs among Paraja Community of Koraput District, Odisha

Introduction

Food consumption patterns reflect the habitual ways in which individuals or groups choose, prepare, and consume food. These patterns are influenced by factors such as availability of resources, income, education, geography, and lifestyle, encompassing meal frequency, portion sizes, food types, and preparation methods. Over time, food habits may change due to urbanization, globalization, technological advances, and health awareness. Evidence from across India indicates that tribal populations generally consume cereal-based, carbohydraterich diets with limited inclusion of nutrient-dense foods, resulting in persistent nutritional vulnerability. While diets vary by region, tribal subgroup, livelihood system, and ecological context, studies in Gujarat and other western states report limited intake of fruits, milk, eggs, fish, and meat, whereas some Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in Andhra Pradesh maintain regular consumption of hunted or reared animal foods, though diets remain largely carbohydrate-dominated and seasonal variations affect food security (Sahu, 2018; Ghosh & Varerkar, 2019; Subramanyam & Rao, 2023) [18,9,21] . Indigenous and wild foods have been shown to contribute substantially to micronutrient intake among tribal populations in Jharkhand and central India, despite modest energy contribution (Ghosh et al., 2020; Mishra et al., 2021) [10,13] . However, access to these foods is constrained by seasonality, cultural beliefs, and environmental factors. Socio-cultural beliefs play a crucial role in shaping dietary patterns. Traditions, rituals, taboos, and customs influence what is considered acceptable to eat, how food is prepared, and the social meaning attached to meals. Food practices among tribal communities are deeply embedded in ritual life, belief systems, and ecological relationships, serving as markers of identity and social cohesion. Ceremonial foods and traditional alcoholic beverages are integral to festivals and life-cycle rituals, as observed among the Bonda of Odisha, Adi of Arunachal Pradesh, and Kharam of Manipur (Sahoo et al., 2024) [17] . Nature-centered worship and ancestor veneration further influence food customs, such as among the Kora of West Bengal and the Savara of South Odisha (Chakraborty, 2018; Bhuyan, 2024) [6,3] . Food taboos also affect dietary intake during critical life stages, including pregnancy, lactation, and childhood, with beliefs influencing the avoidance of certain plants and animal foods (Singh et al., 2020, 2021 [19,20,15,1,8] . While some practices promote nutrient intake, others may restrict access to nutrient-dense foods. Overall, tribal diets in India are largely cereal-based, often leading to nutritional inadequacy. Indigenous food systems and traditional practices hold significant nutritional potential while sustaining cultural identity, social cohesion, and ecological stewardship. However, dietary restrictions and seasonal limitations underscore the need for contextspecific, culturally sensitive nutrition interventions. Notably, there is limited research on the Paraja tribal community of Koraput district, emphasizing the importance of documenting both their food consumption patterns and socio-cultural beliefs. The present study has been conducted with the following objectives:  To document the food consumption patterns of the Paraja community in Koraput district, Odisha.  To record and describe the socio-cultural beliefs, taboos, and practices related to food among the Paraja community.

Materials and Methods

Study design and area

The present study employed a descriptive, cross-sectional research design. Villages with a high concentration of Paraja households were purposively selected to capture representative dietary and socio-cultural practices.

Study population and sampling

The study population included Paraja households, with emphasis on adults responsible for food preparation and child feeding. Within 25 selected villages, 400 households with at least one under-five child were randomly chosen for participation to ensure variability and representativeness.

Data Collection 2.3.1 Food consumption patterns

Data was collected using a 24-hour dietary recall and a food frequency questionnaire to document daily, weekly, and seasonal consumption of foods.

Socio-cultural beliefs

Structured interviews and focus group discussions were conducted to explore beliefs, taboos and rituals related to food.

Data analysis

 Quantitative data on food consumption were analyzed using descriptive statistics, including percentages, mean, and frequency distributions.  Qualitative data on socio-cultural beliefs were thematically analyzed and presented with illustrative examples and verbatim quotes to capture the cultural context.

Ethical considerations

 Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection.  Cultural sensitivities were respected, and confidentiality of participant information was maintained throughout the study.

Result and Discussion

Food consumption pattern

Food consumption patterns of Paraja households were assessed using the frequency of intake across major food groups (Fig. 1). The results indicate a diet strongly centered on staple foods, with limited diversification and pronounced seasonal influences on the availability of vegetables, fruits, and animal-source foods. [18,9,11] . This dependence reflects both cultural food preferences and structural constraints in accessing diversified food groups. Intake of pulses and legumes remained largely irregular, with a majority of households consuming them on a weekly basis rather than daily. [10,22] . In contrast, a majority of households consumed green leafy vegetables on a weekly basis, reflecting underutilization despite their high micronutrient density. This pattern mirrors observations from tribal areas of Odisha and West Bengal, where seasonal dependence and limited preservation practices affect regular intake (Ghosh et al., 2022; Pooja et al., 2022) [10, 14] . Fruit consumption was generally low, with most households reporting infrequent intake. Comparable findings have been documented among tribal populations across central and eastern India, where market access, seasonal availability, and purchasing power constrain routine fruit consumption (Sahu, 2018; Pooja et al., 2022) [18, 14] . Such low fruit intake contributes to inadequate vitamin and antioxidant intake. Animal-source foods were consumed at moderate levels, mainly on a weekly basis. Fish intake was relatively more frequent than meat and poultry, reflecting ecological accessibility and traditional fishing practices, similar to patterns reported among tribal communities in northeastern and coastal regions (Atungbou, 2020; Subramanyam and Rao, 2023) [2,21] . However, the overall frequency remained lower than that reported among some Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs), indicating livelihood and seasonal constraints influencing protein availability (Surve et al., 2022) [22] . Milk and milk products were minimally consumed, with a substantial proportion of households reporting nonconsumption. Low dairy intake has been consistently reported among tribal populations due to limited livestock ownership, storage constraints, and affordability barriers. This pattern suggests potential risks of calcium and highquality protein inadequacy, particularly among women and children. Consumption of nuts and oilseeds was negligible, further reducing dietary fat quality and micronutrient density. In contrast, routine consumption of cooking oil and spices was widespread, reflecting habitual culinary practices rather than nutritionally balanced fat intake. Similar dietary fat patterns have been reported among tribal households in central India.

High reliance on sugar-sweetened beverages, particularly tea, was observed among most households. Previous studies among tribal communities have linked this pattern to affordability, cultural preference, and the absence of milkbased alternatives (Ghosh and Varerkar, 2019; Ghosh et al., 2020) [9,10] . Regular alcohol consumption was also common, consistent with reports from eastern tribal belts where traditional brews form an integral part of social and ritual life (Atungbou, 2020; Subramanyam and Rao, 2023) [2,21] . However, this raises concerns regarding nutritional displacement and long-term health implications. Overall, the dietary pattern depicted in Fig. 1 [18,7,10] and highlight the urgent need for nutrition-sensitive interventions that strengthen dietary diversity through improved access to indigenous foods, seasonal produce, pulses, and small-scale livestock within traditional food system frameworks. [12] .

Socio-cultural significance of food

Food taboos and dietary restrictions

The study findings reveal that food taboos among the Paraja community are structured around life stages, health conditions, and seasonal changes. Pregnancy-related dietary restrictions were widely reported by respondents. Women commonly avoided animal-source foods, certain fruits, pulses, and forest produce due to fears of miscarriage or adverse pregnancy outcomes. These findings align with studies from South and Eastern India (Subramanyam & Rao, 2023; Chakrabarti & Chakrabarti, 2019) [21,5] . As a pregnant mother stated: "If I eat jackfruit or goat meat now, the child may fall sick or become weak." At the same time, freshly prepared ragi gruel and simple rice preparations are preferred. These foods were perceived as light, strengthening, and safe for the developing fetus.

Postpartum and lactation diets focus on recovery and breast milk production. Women reported regular intake of ragi-based gruel, rice water, boiled pulses, and herbal decoctions. A lactating mother explained: "After birth of the baby, we drink mandia pej every day because it helps in milk flow and gives strength."

In contrast, several vegetables and animal-based foods were avoided during the early postpartum period due to concerns about infant digestive problems and illness. These restrictions were described as temporary and gradually relaxed as the child grew older. Similar observations were made by Singh et al., 2021 [20] and Bista, 2020 [4] . Food is categorized as "hot" or "cold" to restore balance.

Respondents reported consuming soft cereal-based foods during fever and diarrhea, while fruits and milk were encouraged during childhood infections such as measles. A caregiver noted: "When the child has fever, we give rice water and ragi gruel because heavy food increases weakness."

Ritual foods in life-cycle ceremonies

Food occupies a central position in life-cycle rituals among the Paraja community, functioning as a symbolic medium that mediates social transitions, reinforces collective identity, and sustains spiritual continuity. During childbirth, both the mother and the newborn observe a period of seclusion until the umbilical cord naturally falls off. The cord is ritually buried, followed by purification rites conducted by the Disari (traditional priest or healer). After reintegration into the household, communal meals are organized, symbolizing social acceptance and restoration of ritual purity. The name-giving and early feeding ceremony, usually conducted when the child is around seven to eight months old, marks the introduction of solid foods. The first cereal feeding typically involves khichidi, which is symbolically offered first to a cow before being fed to the child, reflecting beliefs related to purity, ancestral reverence, and nutritional well-being. As one participant stated: "We never feed the child before the cow; it is the first gift to ancestors and ensures the child grows strong."

Puberty rituals (Dandi) associated with menarche involve temporary seclusion of the adolescent girl and the consumption of light and easily digestible foods such as rice, puffed rice, banana, and jaggery. Following purification rites, a ceremonial feast is organized, marking the social recognition of womanhood. Marriage ceremonies are characterized by elaborate food preparations that include rice, millets, meat, and locally brewed liquor, symbolizing fertility, alliance formation, and continuity of kinship ties. In contrast, death rituals emphasize restraint and simplicity, with family members consuming plain gruels during the mourning period. Ritual offerings of rice, meat, and liquor are made to ancestors, reinforcing beliefs in spiritual continuity and the enduring relationship between the living and the departed.

Collectively, these food-centered practices highlight the integral role of traditional dietary customs in maintaining cultural identity and regulating social and spiritual life within the community.

Major festivals and food-related rituals

The ritual calendar of the Paraja community is closely synchronized with the agricultural cycle, reflecting an integrated relationship between food production, spirituality, and ecological stewardship. [6,3,2] . Regulation of first harvest consumption, communal feasting, and forest food access functions as a traditional governance system that promotes food sustainability, biodiversity conservation, and social cohesion (Singh et al., 2020; Gutierrez et al., 2022) [19,12] .

Acknowledgement

AcknowledgmentsAuthors are grateful to Rama Devi Women's University, Bhubaneswar for providing necessary support; ICSSR, New Delhi for the financial support and respondents of surveyed villages for providing the valued information.

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