Agroforestry practices for sustainable production in India: A review

Introduction

India is the most populous country in the world, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, and faces immense pressure to ensure food and nutritional security for its rapidly growing population. Agriculture continues to play a vital role in supporting livelihoods and national food security. Although substantial progress has been made in cereal production since the Green Revolution, nutritional insecurity remains a major concern due to insufficient availability of fruits, vegetables, pulses, and other diversified food sources (FAO, 2021; Pingali et al., 2019) [18,42] . This challenge is further intensified by shrinking landholdings, population pressure, rapid urbanization, and degradation of natural resources (Chand et al., 2017) [3] . India possesses approximately 156 million hectares of arable land; however, per capita availability of cultivable land has declined sharply over the decades (GOI, 2022). Intensive and continuous cultivation, excessive reliance on chemical fertilizers, monocropping, and inadequate residue and organic matter management have contributed to widespread soil degradation (Lal, 2015; Bhattacharyya et al., 2016) [32,1] . A large proportion of Indian agricultural soils are characterized by low soil organic carbon and deficiencies of essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and several micronutrients, including zinc and boron (Tandon, 2013; Singh et al., 2020) [48,47] . This decline in soil fertility poses a serious threat to long-term agricultural productivity and sustainability. Soil health deterioration, coupled with increasing vulnerability to climate variability, presents a significant challenge to Indian agriculture. The country frequently experiences climate-induced stresses such as droughts, floods, heat waves, cyclones, erratic rainfall patterns, and groundwater depletion across different agro-ecological regions (IPCC, 2022; Ramesh et al., 2017) [24, ] . Climate change is projected to further exacerbate these stresses, adversely affecting crop productivity, farm incomes, and rural livelihoods (Mall et al., 2018) [35] . Therefore, the adoption of climate-smart, resource-efficient, and resilient agricultural practices has become essential to ensure sustainable food production and environmental stability. Agroforestry, a land-use system that deliberately integrates trees with crops and/or livestock, offers a promising solution to address these challenges. According to Nair (1993) [37] and Garrity (2004) [20] , agroforestry systems provide multiple ecological, economic, and social benefits, including improved soil fertility through enhanced organic matter input and nutrient cycling, reduced soil erosion, improved microclimate regulation, biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration, and diversified income opportunities. By optimizing both vertical and horizontal resource use, agroforestry enhances productivity per unit area while ensuring sustainable management of natural resources (Jose, 2009; Udawatta et al., 2019) [25,50] . Across India, diverse agroforestry systems such as agrisilviculture, agri-horticulture, agri-silvi-horticulture, silvipastoral systems, boundary and block plantations, and homestead agroforestry are widely practiced under different agro-climatic conditions (Dhyani et al., 2013; Rizvi et al., 2017) [17, 45] . Fruit-tree-based agroforestry systems involving mango, guava, aonla, ber, citrus, coconut, banana, and jackfruit integrated with annual crops, vegetables, and fodder species are particularly popular among small and marginal farmers (Chavan et al., 2015; Kumar et al., 2018) [8,31] . These systems contribute significantly to year-round production, income diversification, food and nutritional security, and livelihood resilience. Agroforestry also plays a crucial role in climate change mitigation and adaptation by enhancing carbon stocks, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, improving water-use efficiency, and buffering crops against climatic extremes (Montagnini & Nair, 2012; Lal et al., 2018) [36,33] . Recognizing its importance, agroforestry has been promoted through national initiatives such as the National Agroforestry Policy (2014), along with various programs under ICAR, the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), and state-level schemes across the country (Dhyani et al., 2018) [12] . While a considerable body of research in India highlights the role of agroforestry in improving productivity, soil fertility, livelihood security, and ecological sustainability (Pandey, 2007; Tewari et al., 2019) [41,49] , comprehensive synthesis on its overall potential and scope at the national level remains limited. Therefore, the present review aims to assess the potential of agroforestry systems for sustainable agricultural production in India, summarize prevalent agroforestry practices, and evaluate their role in enhancing soil health, farm resilience, livelihoods, and climate change mitigation.

Common Agroforestry Practices in India

Agroforestry is a traditional and sustainable land-use system widely practiced across India, involving the deliberate integration of woody perennials with agricultural crops and/or livestock on the same land management unit. Rooted in indigenous farming knowledge and strengthened by scientific advancements in agroecology, agroforestry contributes to agricultural sustainability, enhanced productivity, livelihood security, and environmental conservation (Nair, 1993; Leakey, 2017) [37,34] . The system consists of three major componentstrees, crops, and animals-forming three basic agroforestry systems, namely agrisilviculture, silvipastoral, and agrisilvipastoral systems. India's diverse agro-climatic conditions support a wide range of agroforestry practices. Fruit orchards such as mango, guava, aonla, ber, citrus, banana, papaya, coconut, arecanut, litchi, and apple are expanding across different regions and offer immense scope for conversion into scientifically managed agroforestry systems (Chavan et al., 2015) [9] . Fast-growing multipurpose tree species such as poplar, eucalyptus, neem, shisham, teak, subabul, bamboo, and casuarina are commonly integrated with agricultural crops (Dhyani et al., 2013) [14] . Boundary plantation, block plantation, alley cropping, cropland agroforestry, multistoried systems, silvipastoral systems, homestead agroforestry, shelterbelts, and windbreaks are the most prevalent agroforestry practices in India, contributing significantly to sustainable agricultural production and climate resilience.

Alley Cropping / Hedgerow Intercropping

Alley cropping, also known as hedgerow intercropping, involves growing agricultural crops between rows of trees or shrubs. According to Kang et al. (1990) [26] and Young (1997) [51] , this system enhances land productivity by combining short-term crop benefits with long-term tree outputs. In India, alley cropping is particularly suitable for rainfed, semi-arid, and hilly regions where soil conservation and moisture retention are critical (ICAR, 2016). Common tree species include Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium, Sesbania sesban, Albizia lebbeck, and Calliandra calothyrsus, while crops such as cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, and fodder crops are grown in the alleys. Although competition may occur, several studies have reported land equivalent ratios (LER) greater than one, indicating superior system productivity compared to monocropping (Rao et al., 2012) [44] . Proper alley width, periodic pruning, and species selection significantly reduce competition and enhance system efficiency (Jose, 2009) [25] . Pruned biomass acts as green manure and mulch, improving soil organic carbon, moisture retention, and microbial activity while reducing dependence on chemical fertilizers, particularly nitrogen (Palm et al., 2014) [39] .

Shifting Cultivation-Based and Sloping Land Agroforestry Systems

Shifting cultivation (jhum) practiced in northeastern India has become ecologically unsustainable due to shortened fallow periods (Ramakrishnan, 1992) [43] . Agroforestry-based alternatives such as agri-horticulture, contour hedgerows, and silvipastoral systems have been shown to reduce soil erosion, enhance biomass production, and improve farm incomes (Darlong & Tripathi, 2012; Singh et al., 2018) [11, ] . To address these challenges, agroforestry-based alternatives such as agrihorticulture, agri-silviculture, silvipastoral systems, contourbased tree planting, and sloping agricultural land technologies have been promoted in hilly and sloping regions of India. These systems integrate perennial trees with crops to stabilize soil, reduce runoff, enhance soil fertility, and improve productivity. Compared to traditional shifting cultivation, agroforestry-based land-use systems have demonstrated reduced soil erosion, increased biomass production, and improved economic returns, thereby offering sustainable livelihood options while conserving fragile ecosystems.

Cropland Agroforestry

Cropland agroforestry is one of the most widespread and economically important agroforestry systems in India. In this system, farmers integrate trees within agricultural fields to produce timber, fuelwood, fodder, fruits, medicinal products, and ecological benefits alongside food crops. Common tree species include poplar, eucalyptus, neem, shisham, teak, subabul, bamboo, mango, guava, aonla, jamun, and coconut. Cropland agroforestry systems are predominantly adopted by small and marginal farmers to diversify income sources and reduce production risks. In these systems, crops primarily utilize nutrients from the upper soil layers, while trees extract water and nutrients from deeper layers, reducing direct competition. Appropriate spacing, species selection, and management practices are crucial to maintaining crop productivity. Leaf litter and pruned biomass contribute significantly to soil organic matter and nutrient cycling, leading to improved soil fertility and structure over time. Agroforestry is recognized as a key strategy for climate change mitigation and adaptation. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), agroforestry has one of the highest potentials for carbon sequestration among agricultural land-use systems. Cropland agroforestry systems capture atmospheric carbon dioxide and store carbon in biomass and soil, while enhancing resilience against climate extremes such as droughts, floods, and heat stress. Economic analyses consistently show higher net returns from agroforestry-based systems compared to sole cropping, reinforcing their role in improving farmer livelihoods and ecosystem services. Cropland agroforestry is among the most widespread systems in India, particularly in the Indo-Gangetic Plains. Studies by Singh et al. (2017) [46] and Tewari et al. (2019) [49] reported higher net returns and improved soil health under poplar-and eucalyptus-based agroforestry compared to sole cropping. According to IPCC (2019) [23] , agroforestry has one of the highest carbon sequestration potentials among agricultural land-use systems.

Agri-silviculture System

The agri-silviculture system involves the cultivation of agricultural crops alongside forest or multipurpose tree species to increase land productivity and economic returns. Across India, crops such as rice, wheat, maize, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, and fodder crops are commonly grown under tree species like poplar, eucalyptus, shisham, neem, teak, albizia, and subabul. Poplar-and eucalyptus-based agri-silviculture systems are particularly prominent in northern and northwestern India due to their compatibility with cereal-based cropping systems. Agri-silviculture systems involving poplar, eucalyptus, shisham, and neem integrated with cereal crops are well established in northern India. Research by Chaturvedi et al. (2014) [5] showed higher benefit-cost ratios and improved nutrient cycling in these systems compared to monocropping.

Multistoried Agroforestry Systems

Multistoried agroforestry systems are highly productive land-use systems that involve the vertical arrangement of trees and crops in multiple canopy layers. These systems typically consist of upper-storey timber or fruit trees, middle-storey plantation or fruit crops, and lower-storey vegetables, spices, fodder, or medicinal plants. Multistoried agroforestry systems are commonly found in homesteads, orchards, plantations, and tribal farming systems across India. Typical multistoried combinations include coconut-banana-pineapple, arecanut-pepper-banana, mango-guava-vegetables, aonla-lemon-ginger, citrus-papayaturmeric, and poplar-banana-vegetables. These systems efficiently utilize solar radiation, soil nutrients, and moisture by exploiting different canopy strata and root zones. Multistoried agroforestry systems are among the most efficient land-use systems, particularly in humid and sub-humid regions. According to Nair (2011) [38] and Kumar et al. (2018) [29] , these systems maximize resource-use efficiency, carbon sequestration, and income diversification. Higher LER and BCR values reported by Pandey (2007) [41] and Rizvi et al. (2017) [45] confirm their superiority over monocropping systems. [37,28] . These systems are widespread across rural and peri-urban India, particularly in states such as Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Assam, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and the northeastern region, where small and marginal farmers dominate the agrarian landscape (Pandey, 2007; Dhyani et al., 2013) [40,13] .

Homestead agroforestry provides a wide range of products, including fuelwood, fruits, vegetables, fodder, timber, bamboo, medicinal resources, livestock products, and shelter, thereby supporting household subsistence and income generation.

Studies have shown that Indian home gardens significantly contribute to daily household consumption and act as a safety net during periods of crop failure or market instability (Jose, 2009; Rizvi et al., 2017) [25,45] . In India, homesteads are traditionally divided into functional micro-sites such as the front yard, backyard, side yard, boundary plantation, kitchen garden, and approach areas, each hosting specific plant species based on light availability, water access, and household needs. This spatial arrangement enhances resource-use efficiency and species complementarity, thereby improving overall system productivity (Kumar et al., 2012) [30] . Homestead agroforestry, commonly referred to as home gardening, represents one of the oldest and most resilient traditional land-use systems in tropical India and plays a crucial role in the rural economy by ensuring food and nutritional security, particularly for small and marginal farmers (Nair, 2011; Pandey, 2007) [38,41] . Due to small landholdings, population pressure, and livelihood constraints, rural households increasingly intensify the use of homestead spaces as productive units. In many regions of India, homestead agroforestry contributes significantly to domestic requirements of fruits, vegetables, fuelwood, fodder, bamboo, and minor forest produce, thereby reducing dependence on external markets and pressure on nearby forests (Chaturvedi et al., 2014) [6] . Empirical studies across eastern and southern India have reported high species richness in home gardens, reflecting strong linkages between homestead structure, socio-economic status, soil conditions, and local ecology (Kumar & Nair, 2004; Udawatta et al., 2019) [28,50] . Homestead agroforestry systems also serve as important reservoirs of agrobiodiversity and play a vital role in the conservation of indigenous plant species, traditional crop varieties, and medicinal plants. In climatically vulnerable regions such as eastern India, coastal belts, and the northeastern states, homestead agroforestry contributes to climate resilience by buffering households against extreme weather events, salinity ingress, floods, and droughts (Ramakrishnan, 1992; Mall et al., 2018) [43,35] . Malnutrition remains a serious concern among landless laborers, smallholders, women, and children in rural India. Homestead agroforestry addresses this challenge by enabling year-round production of nutrient-rich fruits, vegetables, and animal products, thereby improving dietary diversity and household nutrition (FAO, 2021; Singh et al., 2020) [18,47] . Furthermore, homestead-based activities provide employment and income opportunities for women, enhancing their economic participation, decision-making power, and social status within households and communities (Chand et al., 2017) [4] . [12,8] .

Benefits of Agroforestry and Ecosystem Services (India)

Integrating trees, crops, and livestock within agroforestry systems offers substantial ecological, economic, and social benefits across diverse agro-climatic regions of India. Agroforestry systems enhance soil fertility, biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration, microclimate regulation, and livelihood resilience, while providing ecosystem services at multiple spatial and temporal scales (Jose, 2009; Garrity, 2004) [25, 20] .

Biodiversity Conservation

Despite its rich biological heritage, India is experiencing rapid biodiversity loss due to agricultural intensification, monocropping, deforestation, and land-use change. Continuous cultivation of a limited number of crops has reduced agricultural biodiversity, negatively affecting ecosystem services, nutritional security, and farm resilience (IPBES, 2019) [22] . However, agricultural landscapes in India still hold immense potential for biodiversity conservation when managed through tree-based farming systems (Pandey, 2007) [40] . Agroforestry systems promote biodiversity conservation by providing habitats for diverse flora and fauna capable of tolerating moderate disturbance, conserving germplasm of indigenous and rare species, reducing pressure on natural forests, and supporting ecosystem services such as pollination, pest regulation, soil conservation, and water recharge (Jose, 2009; Udawatta et al., 2019) [25,50] . Several studies across India have documented higher species richness, functional diversity, and ecosystem stability in agroforestry systems compared to monocropping systems (Rizvi et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2017) [45,46] .

Increasing Soil Fertility

Soil fertility degradation is a major constraint to sustainable agriculture in India, particularly in rainfed, degraded, and intensively cultivated regions. Agroforestry enhances soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation, efficient nutrient cycling, deep nutrient uptake, organic matter addition, and improved soil structure (Young, 1997; Lal, 2015) [51,32] . Both nitrogen-fixing and non-nitrogen-fixing tree species contribute to improved physical, chemical, and biological soil properties. Agroforestry systems such as alley cropping, silvipasture, boundary plantations, windbreaks, and riparian buffers have demonstrated higher soil organic carbon, microbial biomass, enzyme activity, and macrofaunal abundance compared to conventional monocropping systems (Bhattacharyya et al., 2016; Rao et al., 2012) [1,44] . Additionally, agroforestry practices help reduce nutrient losses, improve water infiltration, and mitigate soil erosion, thereby supporting longterm soil health and sustainable productivity (Lal et al., 2018) [33] .

Climate Change Mitigation (Carbon Sequestration)

Agroforestry systems play a vital role in climate change mitigation and adaptation by enhancing carbon sequestration in both above-ground biomass and soils. In India, agroforestry offers a practical land-based mitigation strategy with multiple co-benefits such as food security, income diversification, land restoration, and reduced dependence on natural forests (Kumar et al., 2018; Montagnini & Nair, 2012) [29,36] . Agroforestry sequesters carbon by storing it in trees, crops, litter, roots, and soil organic matter, while also reducing greenhouse gas emissions through improved land management. Compared to monocropping systems, agroforestry systems have significantly higher carbon stocks and greater long-term carbon storage potential (Nair, 2011; Lal et al., 2018) [38,33] . Recognized under the National Agroforestry Policy (2014), agroforestry aligns with India's commitments to creating additional carbon sinks and achieving climate-resilient agriculture (Chavan et al., 2015; IPCC, 2022) [9,24] .

Ecosystem Services

Agroforestry systems in India provide a wide range of ecosystem services, including provisioning (food, fuel, fodder, timber), regulating (climate regulation, erosion control, water purification), supporting (nutrient cycling, soil formation), and cultural services (traditional knowledge, aesthetics, and livelihood identity) (Jose, 2009; FAO, 2021) [25,19] . As a traditional and adaptive land-use practice, agroforestry enhances climate resilience, improves landscape stability, and supports multifunctional agriculture. Well-managed agroforestry landscapes contribute to ecological restoration, biodiversity conservation, sustainable livelihoods, and long-term agricultural sustainability across diverse Indian agro-ecosystems (Pandey, 2007; Dhyani et al., 2013) [41,14] . [28,17] . Therefore, both traditional and improved agroforestry practices deserve greater attention at national and state levels due to their proven economic, ecological, and social benefits (Pandey, 2007; Rizvi et al., 2017) [40,45] .Traditional agroforestry systems can enhance social stability by strengthening farmer participation, promoting community-based land management, integrating indigenous knowledge with scientific innovations, and optimizing the use of natural resources (Jose, 2009; Kumar et al., 2012) [25,27] . These systems also provide multifunctional landscapes that support local livelihoods, conserve biodiversity, and improve farm resilience (Chavan et al., 2015; Dhyani et al., 2018) [10,15] . Given India's high vulnerability to climate change, increasing incidences of floods, droughts, heat waves, and declining air quality underscore the need for cost-effective and nature-based mitigation strategies (Mall et al., 2018; Chaturvedi et al., 2014) [35, 7] . Agroforestry systems can reduce flood risks, improve air quality, stabilize soils, regulate hydrological processes, and minimize riverbank and landscape erosion (Udawatta et al., 2019; Lal, 2015) [50,33] . The effectiveness of these services depends on tree species composition, spatial arrangement, planting density, age structure, and management practices adopted within agroforestry systems (Nair, 1993; Montagnini & Nair, 2012) [37,36] . Furthermore, global assessments by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES, 2019) [22] emphasize that biodiversity conservation is critical for ensuring food security, climate change mitigation, reduced land degradation, and longterm environmental stability. In India, biodiversity loss has been driven by agricultural intensification, population growth, industrialization, habitat degradation, and climate change (Ramakrishnan, 1992; Young, 1997) [43,51] . Agroforestry mimics the structural complexity of natural ecosystems by providing diverse habitats and refuges for flora and fauna, thereby contributing to biodiversity conservation and enhancement within agricultural landscapes (Kumar et al., 2012; Dhyani et al., 2018) [27,16] . Adoption of agroforestry can also help mitigate the adverse impacts of deforestation and unsustainable land-use practices (Lal et al., 2018; Kumar et al., 2018) [27,33] .

Conclusion

Climate-smart agricultural practices such as agroforestry represent an indispensable pathway for achieving sustainable agricultural production, enhanced livelihoods, climate change mitigation, and adaptation in India. The present synthesis highlights that farmers across different regions of the country practice a wide range of agroforestry systems, reflecting both traditional knowledge and adaptive innovations. Systematic documentation and evaluation of these practices are crucial for strengthening the knowledge base on agroforestry and facilitating the wider adoption of suitable systems at the farm level, as well as for guiding future research and development efforts.

Effective management of tree-crop interactions through appropriate species selection, spacing, pruning, and silvicultural interventions is essential to minimize above-and below-ground competition and to enhance overall system productivity. Extension agencies, particularly the Department of Agriculture and allied institutions in India, play a pivotal role in promoting agroforestry through awareness campaigns, capacity-building programs, supply of quality planting material, and policy support. Strengthening these initiatives will accelerate the adoption of agroforestry as a sustainable, resilient, and climatesmart land-use system capable of addressing India's food security, environmental, and livelihood challenges.

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