Biological control in peach, pear and plum orchard

Introduction

Peach (Prunus persica L.), pear (Pyrus communis) and plum (Prunus domestica) are vital fruit species within the Rosaceae family, widely recognized for their high nutritional value and substantial commercial importance. These species are widely farmed across temperate parts of the world and contribute significantly to global fruit production due to their excellent fruit quality, economic value and adaptability to varied agro-climatic conditions (Khadivi et al., 2025; Simionca et al., 2023; Afanador-Barajas et al., 2022) [28,50,2] . Biological control refers to the use of natural enemies (predators, parasitoids and pathogens) against pests. Since the 1800s, 'traditional biological control' has involved importing natural enemies to decrease alien pests. However, this technique is being scrutinized due to the potential consequences on non-target, native species (Follett and Duan, 2012) [20] . Culturing methods for natural enemies were established in the 1900s, enabling biological control programs against many pests (van Lenteren, 2012). This approach remains popular among farmers, despite the increased expenses compared to insecticide sprays. Biological control reduces environmental contamination, protects pollinators and other nontarget creatures and lowers the likelihood of pesticide resistance when compared to chemical pesticides. Its incorporation into orchard management systems promotes safer fruit production, enhanced ecosystem stability and long-term pest control. It has often been stated that using biological control agents poses no risks and is environmentally safe (Batra, 1982; DeBach & Rosen,1991; Doutt, 1972; Van Lenteren, 1983) [15,16,58] . [12] .  The following countries have released over 100 biological control agents (BCAs): USA, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, UK (nearly completely overseas territories), Fiji, Mauritius, India, France (mainly overseas territories), Israel and Guam (Cock et al., 2016) [13] .  Pterochloroides persicae has become a pest of peach and almond trees in numerous countries throughout southern Europe, the eastern Mediterranean, North Africa and most recently, Yemen, where it has been documented to cause considerable damage. The potential of several known natural enemies as biological control agents is examined and many braconid parasitoids, such as Pauesia antennata and Aphidius spp. are highlighted as promising (Kairo and Poswal, 1995) [27] .

Peach, Pear and Plum -Plant Characteristics

Advantages  Long-term management  Sustainable for the environment

Limitations

 non-target effects risk  Slow establishment and regulatory constraints (Messing & Brodeur, 2018) [39]  Cooperatively engaged with other organisms to intensify pest issues (Howarth, 1991) [24]

Augmentative Biological Control

Raising natural enemies in large quantities and releasing them on a regular basis to boost their population density is known as augmentative biological control. These subdivided into two terms,

Inoculative Release

 Small numbers of natural enemies are released early in the season to establish and multiply.  The seasonal inoculative release approach involves collecting and mass rearing natural enemies before releasing them onto short-term crops (6-12 months) with high insect populations. During the growing season, a large number of natural enemies are released in order to obtain immediate control and establish a population for future control (Van Lenteren & Bueno, 2003; Hajek and Eilenberg, 2018) [58,23] .

Inundative Release

 Large numbers of natural enemies are released to achieve immediate pest suppression.  In the inundative release approach, beneficial organisms are gathered, mass-reared, and released in vast numbers to eradicate pests immediately (also known as "biotic insecticide"). Natural enemies, rather than their offspring, provide the majority of pest control (Van Lenteren & Bueno, 2003; Hajek and Eilenberg, 2018) [58,23] .

Conservation Biological Control

Conservation biological control aims to improve and sustain current natural enemy populations through habitat and agricultural management methods. [41] Chrysoperla rufilabris and C. plorabunda Predators Atanassov et al., 2003 [8] Coccinella septempunctata and Harmonia axyridis Predators Atanassov et al., 2003 [8] Orius insidiosus Predators Atanassov et al., 2003 [8]

Trichogramma minutum

Egg parasitoid Atanassov et al., 2003 [8] Extrafloral [36,37,38] 2

Peach Twig Borer

Apanteles ruficrus, Diplazon laetatorus, Microgaster tiro Hymenopterous parasitoids Abdel-Samad, 2006 [1] Ecodian Combi CM+AL Pheromone dispensers Kutinkova et al., 2011 [31] 3

Green Peach Aphid

Aphidius transcaspicus Telenga and Praon volucre Parasitoids Aparicio et al., 2019 [4] Episyrphus balteatus, Aphidoletes aphidimyza, and Orius majusculus Predators Aparicio et al., 2020 [3] A [25,40] Propylea quatuordecimpunctata Predators Lami et al., 2024 [24] Aphidius colemani Parasitoid Lami et al., 2024 [24] 4 Mites Amblyseius fallacis Predator Lester et al., 1999 [35]

Anthocoris nemoralis

Predator Krndija et al. 2024 [29] Chrysoperla externa, Chrysopidae sp., Hemerobiidae sp., Harmonia axyridis and Cycloneda sanguinea Predator Valle et al., 2022 [56] Deraeocoris brevis and Campylomma verbasci, Chrysoperla plorabunda and Chrysopa nigricornis Predators DuPont and Strohm, 2020 [17] Beauveria bassiana and Paecilomyces fumosoroseus Entomopathogenic fungi Puterka,1999; Puterka,1994 Azadirachtin and abamectin

Biopesticides Wheeler et al., 2020 [61] 2

Codling Moth

Mastrus ridibundus and Ascogaster quadridentata Parasitoids Lacey & Unruh, 2005; [33] Codling moth granulovirus (CpGV) [33,18,7] Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Bacteria Lacey and Siegel, 2000 [32] Mermithidae and Steinernematidae Entomopathogenic nematodes Poinar, 1991 [43] Steinernema feltiae and Steinernema carpocapsae Entomopathogenic nematodes Juan et al., 2008 [26] Spinosad Biopesticide Arthurs et al., 2007 [7] 3 sawfly

Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and Steinernema carpocapsae

Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) Curto et al., 2007 [14] Steinernema feltiae Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) Curto et al., 2007 [14] 4 pear leaf blister mite Typhlodromus pyri Predator Praslička et al., 2011 [44] [52,53] Beauveria bassiana Biopesticide Petrova, 2023 [42] Steinernema carpocapsae Entomopathogenic nematodes Arroyo et al., 2012 [6] 3 Plum Sawfly Steinernema feltiae, S. carpocapsae and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora Entomopathogenic nematodes Seethapathy et al., 2022 [48] 4 San Jose Scale Aphytis (proclia group), Encarsia perniciosi, Prospaltella perniciosi Parasitoids Seethapathy et al., 2022 [48] Chilocorus circumdatus and Coccinella infernalis Predators Seethapathy et al., 2022 [48] 5 [49] Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae Entomopathogenic fungi Tedders et al., 1982 [54] Anaphes conotracheli, Nealiolus curculionis, Thersilochus conotracheli Parasitoid Snapp, 1930; Krombein et al., 1979 [51,30]

Conclusion

In peach, pear and plum orchards, biological control is a practical and growing part of sustainable pest management. Predators, parasitoids and entomopathogenic microbes are examples of natural enemies that can effectively control major insect pests while resolving many of the environmental and health issues related to heavy chemical pesticide use. Long-term pest control, biodiversity promotion and orchard ecosystem resilience have all been shown to be significantly enhanced by conservation, augmentation and traditional biological control techniques. Biological methods limit adverse effects on non-target organisms, minimize the development of resistance and reduce pesticide inputs when compared to chemical control.

Acknowledgement

AcknowledgmentsThe authors thank SKUAST-K, Srinagar for their assistance, especially the research facilities and library resources that made this review possible. We also thank the researchers who made our work feasible by studying biological control in peach, pear, and plum ecosystems.

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