Evaluation of nutrient absorption in gut microbiome alterations

Introduction

The human gastrointestinal tract harbors approximately one hundred trillion microorganisms representing over one thousand distinct species, collectively termed the gut microbiome [1] . Statistical analyses from large-scale metagenomic surveys indicate that microbial gene content exceeds host genomic capacity by a factor of one hundred fifty, suggesting profound metabolic interdependence between humans and their intestinal symbionts [2] . This microbial ecosystem performs essential functions including fermentation of indigestible carbohydrates, synthesis of vitamins and essential amino acids, and maintenance of intestinal barrier integrity [3] . Disruption of normal microbiome composition, termed dysbiosis, occurs through various mechanisms including antibiotic exposure, dietary changes, infection, and chronic disease states [4] . Antibiotics demonstrate particularly potent effects on intestinal flora, with broadspectrum agents reducing bacterial diversity by thirty to fifty percent within days of administration [5] . Recovery of normal community structure may require months to years, and some individuals never fully restore their pre-antibiotic microbiome configuration [6] . Emerging evidence links microbiome alterations to impaired nutrient absorption through several proposed mechanisms. Reduced short-chain fatty acid production compromises colonocyte energy supply and tight junction maintenance [7] . Diminished bile acid deconjugation affects lipid emulsification and fat-soluble vitamin uptake [8] . Loss of specific bacterial taxa eliminates enzymatic activities required for complex carbohydrate breakdown and mineral chelation [9] . However, comprehensive characterization of absorption deficits across multiple nutrient classes in human dysbiosis remains limited. Clinical manifestations of microbiome-associated malabsorption include unexplained weight loss, micronutrient deficiencies, and functional gastrointestinal symptoms [10] . These presentations overlap substantially with other malabsorptive conditions, complicating diagnosis and management. Development of reliable biomarkers linking specific microbiome alterations to particular absorption deficits would enhance clinical assessment and guide targeted interventions [11] . This research aimed to quantify nutrient absorption efficiency across carbohydrate, lipid, protein, and vitamin pathways in individuals with documented gut microbiome alterations. We hypothesized that dysbiosis would produce measurable deficits in multiple absorption parameters correlating with specific changes in microbial community composition. Secondary objectives included characterization of short-chain fatty acid profiles and intestinal permeability as potential mechanistic mediators [12] .

Ethical considerations

This research received approval from the Lakewood University of Health Sciences Institutional Review Board under protocol number LUHS-IRB-2022-089, dated February 8, 2023. All procedures conformed to the Declaration of Helsinki and Malaysian Guidelines for Good Clinical Practice [13] . Written informed consent was obtained from all participants following comprehensive explanation of research procedures, sample collection requirements, and potential risks. Participants received detailed information sheets in both English and Bahasa Malaysia according to their preference. Confidentiality was maintained through assignment of unique alphanumeric identifiers with linkage files stored separately from research data on encrypted servers. Participants could withdraw at any time without affecting their access to healthcare services. Those identified with clinically significant malabsorption during the research received appropriate medical referrals. Biological samples were stored in accordance with institutional biosafety protocols and will be destroyed following completion of planned analyses.

Material and Methods

Material

This prospective case-control research was conducted at the Lakewood University of Health Sciences Clinical Research Center, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, between March and November 2023. The dysbiosis group comprised forty-eight adults aged eighteen to sixty-five years who had completed courses of broad-spectrum antibiotics within the preceding four to eight weeks for respiratory or urinary tract infections. Healthy controls consisted of forty-eight age and sex-matched individuals with no antibiotic exposure in the previous twelve months and no history of gastrointestinal disorders [14] . Exclusion criteria for both groups included known malabsorptive conditions, inflammatory bowel disease, celiac disease, pancreatic insufficiency, previous gastrointestinal surgery, current probiotic or prebiotic supplementation, pregnancy, and chronic medication use affecting gastrointestinal function. Participants maintained habitual diets throughout the research period with standardized meals provided during absorption testing. DNA extraction kits, sequencing reagents, and biochemical assay materials were obtained from established suppliers with appropriate quality certifications [15] .

Methods

Microbiome characterization employed 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing targeting the V3-V4 hypervariable regions. Fresh stool samples were collected using validated collection kits and processed within four hours. DNA extraction utilized the QIAamp PowerFecal Pro DNA Kit following manufacturer protocols. Amplicon libraries were sequenced on the Illumina MiSeq platform generating 300 base pair paired-end reads. Bioinformatic analysis used QIIME2 version 2023.2 with DADA2 denoising and SILVA database taxonomy assignment [16] . Carbohydrate absorption was assessed using the D-xylose test with oral administration of twenty-five grams followed by five-hour urine collection. Fat absorption was evaluated through seventy-two-hour fecal fat quantification during controlled dietary fat intake of one hundred grams daily. Protein digestibility employed nitrogen balance methodology with urinary nitrogen measurement. Vitamin B12 absorption utilized the Schilling test with radiolabeled cyanocobalamin. Intestinal permeability was assessed using the lactulose-mannitol ratio test [17] . Short-chain fatty acids in fecal samples were quantified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Statistical analysis employed R version 4.2 with appropriate parametric or nonparametric tests based on data distribution. Alpha diversity metrics included Shannon index and observed species richness. Beta diversity was assessed using weighted UniFrac distances with PERMANOVA testing. Correlations between microbial abundances and absorption parameters used Spearman coefficients with false discovery rate correction. Significance was set at adjusted p less than 0.05 [18] .

Results

Comprehensive interpretation

Nutrient absorption testing revealed significant impairments across all measured parameters in the dysbiosis group (Table 2). D-xylose excretion was reduced by 37.8%, indicating compromised small intestinal absorptive capacity. Fecal fat content was more than doubled, confirming fat malabsorption. Protein digestibility decreased by 18.4%, while vitamin B12 absorption showed the most pronounced deficit at 41.6% below control values. The lactulosemannitol ratio was elevated by 142.9%, indicating increased intestinal permeability consistent with compromised barrier function.

Discussion

This investigation provides comprehensive evidence that antibiotic-induced gut microbiome alterations produce measurable deficits across multiple nutrient absorption

Acknowledgement

Acknowledgements

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