Adaptive strategies of managing insect pests in rice under climate stress

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa Linnaeous.) is one of the significant ancient grain crops, structuring the staple eating food for more than 60% of the world population including all of East and Southern Asia making it one most crucial agricultural commodity of the worlds (Yu et al., 2020) [61] . It has been cultivated in all continents, especially in Asian countries for thousands of years; hence, it is called as "Global food Grain". Rice is cultivated in more than 100 countries in almost all the tropical, subtropical and temperate countries of the world. Globally, rice is cultivated in an area of 22.3 million hectares with a production of 543.6 million tones and productivity 5.83 tones per hectares. India is the second largest producer and consumer of rice in the world next to China with cultivating area under rice cultivation is 48.86 million hectares, production of 136.42 million tones (Kharif rice-120.67 million tones and Rabi rice 15.75 million tons) with productivity of 2792 kg/ha during 2024-25 (Annual report, 2024-25). In Haryana, rice is cultivated on 1.67 million hectares with production of 119.93 million tones (MT) 2024-25 and productivity of 4200 kilograms per hectare (Paddy outlook, 2024).Yamunanagar, Kurukshetra, Karnal, Kaithal, Jind, Panipat, Sonepat, Rohtak, Sirsa and Fatehabad are major rice growing districts in Haryana. Rice crop is attacked by more than 100 species of insects-pest, out of these 20 are of major economic concern in India (Krishanaiah et al., 2008) [24] such as leaf folder, stem borers, plant hoppers, gundhi bug, gall midge, whorl maggot, caseworm, rice hispa, armyworm and thrips. These pests cause damage to all plant parts and growth stages of rice from seedling to maturity etc. with an overall yield decline. Among these, rice stem borers viz. yellow stem borer, Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker); white stem borer, S. innotata (Walker), pink stem borer, Sesamia inferens (Walker), leaf folder, Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Guenee) and plant hoppers (BPH/WBPH) are of utmost importance in Haryana causing huge yield reduction with the introduction of high yielding varieties, adoption of new agronomic practices, indiscriminate use of pesticides and monoculture over large area along with the humid environment favor the proliferation of insect-pests (Kraker et al., 2000) [23] . The larval feeding of all three-borer species resulted in "dead hearts" during vegetative stage and sterile panicles or "white ears" during reproductive stage. Leaf folder larvae fasten the edges of leaves together, fold them longitudinally and feed on green matter from inside the fold, leaving behind the whitish membranes. Planthopper (BPH/WBPH) because hopper burn in rice field and also helps in virus transmission. White-Backed Planthopper (WBPH) transmits Southern Rice Black Streak Dwarf Virus (SRBSDV). Minor pest rice gundhi bug cause chaffy grains and repugnant smell in the field. Several agronomic practices such as year-round cultivation, highyielding varieties and hybrids, monoculture, excessive nitrogen fertilizer uses, crop residue burning reducing natural enemy reservoirs, global trade and pest introductions, particular weather patterns, poor pesticide rotation practices, and indiscriminate pesticide use have aggravated pest problems in rice cultivation. These factors disrupt ecological balance, promote resistance development, and increase pest resurgence (Atwal & Dhaliwal, 2013) [6] . Climate change significantly influences insect populations, affecting their distribution, abundance, and lifecycle dynamics. Among the various climatic elements, temperature is a key factor that directly impacts insect biology, including their reproductive output (eg. eggs laid per female), developmental duration (such as the time spent in larval stages), and overall survival (both mortality rates and lifespan). Insect responses to environmental changes are species-specific and often depend on the type of host crop or habitat they are associated with. In the face of unpredictable climate conditions, pest management strategies that were effective in the past may no longer be reliable. As such, these approaches need to be reassessed and validated in the context of current and future climate projections, particularly when evaluating potential population outbreaks. Furthermore, rising temperatures, increased levels of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), and altered rainfall patterns can have significant impacts not only on insect populations but also on the broader ecosystems they inhabit, including both plant and animal life.

Climate change and its direct impact on insect pests in rice Temperature variability

Research by Morya and Kumar (2020) [31] in Eastern Uttar Pradesh indicated that a 0.7-1 °C rise in average temperature, along with decreased rainfall, has markedly shifted the incidence and distribution of key rice pests like stem borers and leaf folders. Elevated minimum winter temperatures correlate strongly with increased overwintering survival of pests such as rice hispa and stem borers, resulting in earlier spring outbreaks. Rani & Prasad (2020) [41] reported comparable patterns, noting that higher night temperatures boost developmental speeds and survival of early-season rice pests. Long-term studies by Horgan (2018) [17] highlighted that minimum temperatures more profoundly affect planthopper migration and establishment especially for Nilaparvata lugens than maximum temperatures, owing to their sensitivity to nighttime conditions.

Population Growth and Generation Overlap

A field investigation in Chhattisgarh during 2024 revealed a strong positive correlation between higher temperatures and multiple overlapping generations of brown planthopper and rice leaf folder, resulting in intense crop damage (Harika et al., 2024) [15] . The results are in close proximity with the study of Morya and Kumar (2020) [31] . IPPC indicates that elevated temperatures significantly accelerate pest development rates in aphids and lepidopterans, increasing voltinism and pest pressure (Rao et al., 2025) [43] .

Altered Interspecific Interactions

Regional studies note that Myzus persicae populations have surged during milder winter seasons in northern India, whereas Lipaphis erysimi dominance declines-a clear case of climate-driven species shifts (Rao and Singh, 2024) [42] . The interactive effects of elevated CO 2 and temperature were demonstrated in experiments at ICAR CRIDA during 2025 showing enhanced performance and population indices of aphids and lepidopterans under warming conditions (Rao et al., 2025; Morya and Kumar, 2020) [43,31] .

Expansion of pest generations

Warmer temperatures accelerate the development of S. furcifera, shortening the time between generations and enabling up to five generations per season in regions where fewer were previously possible. This increased voltinism leads to rapidly growing populations and supports their establishment in higher latitudes and cooler uplands, where earlier life cycles were too long to complete successfully. For example, the White-backed Planthopper now overwinters and migrates more successfully from tropical lowlands to regions in southern China such as Yunnan and further into formerly inhospitable areas (Hu et al., 2015) [18] . The research confirms that warmer cold-quarter and winter temperaturesare key drivers for expanding their overwintering zones and subsequent generations in these regions

Change in migrating behavior

Climate change significantly alters the migration behavior of key rice pests by affecting wind patterns, temperature cues, and seasonal rainfall. These changes can disrupt the timing, distance, and direction of insect migrationsleading to earlier arrival, longer presence, or even permanent settlement in formerly migratory zones. Climate change has caused a northward shift of leaffolder in its migratory range, reaching areas like northern China and South Korea, where it was rarely seen before (Sheng et al., 2023) [51] . In some years, delayed monsoon caused accidental over summering, trapping them in regions unsuitable for growth and development as ecological trap (NRI, 2025) [34] .

Indirect Effects via Host Plants in rice Elevated CO2 Effects

Rising atmospheric profoundly modifies rice plant physiology, promoting up to 20% greater biomass, denser canopies, and higher tillering while elevating leaf C:N ratios by 5-16%, which fosters habitats for pests such as the brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens, BPH) and drives increased feeding, honeydew production, and fecundity (up to 30%) despite lower nymph survival and prolonged development. Open Top Chamber trials at ~550-725 ppm, including ICAR-CRIDA and PJTSAU efforts document boosted peroxidase activity (up to 11%) amid falling superoxide dismutase under combined CO 2 and ~3 °C warming, intensifying hopper burn by 31% and reducing yields ~10% through fewer reproductive tillers. This necessitates updated strategies like nitrogen-efficient resistant varieties, vigilant monitoring, and ecological practices such as inter-seasonal functional crops in fallow rice fields to sustain natural enemies against looming outbreak surges. Elevated CO 2 also increases C:N ratio in leaves, forcing phloem feeders such as BPH to feed more, resulting in higher honeydew excretion and faster population growth (Sengottayan and Nathan, 2021) [48] .

Breakdown of host resistance

High temperatures, particularly above 35 °C, can severely impair rice plants' natural defense systems, making them more vulnerable to insect pests. Heat stress affects photosynthesis, membrane stability, and antioxidant enzyme function, weakening the plant's capacity to resist pest attacks such as those by stem borers and planthoppers (Singh et al., 2024) [52] . Temperature-sensitive resistance genes, particularly those linked to salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonic acid (JA) pathways, are downregulated under elevated temperatures. This reduces both antibiosis and antixenosis effects, allowing pests like the brown planthopper (N. lugens) to thrive on previously resistant cultivars (Anand et al., 2023) [3] . Additionally, pests directly benefit from heatstressed host plants. For example, under simulated warming conditions, yellow stem borer (S.incertulas) populations increased significantly, with faster development and higher survival rates. Similarly, metabolic changes inheat-stressed rice seedlings such as higher sugar and reduced phenolic levelshave been associated with increased pest fitness (Tanwar et al., 2024) [58] .

Pest management strategies of rice under changing climate Cultural Practices

For centuries, people have used traditional pest management practices to maintain healthy crops and reduce pest populations, often without relying on synthetic chemicals (Rathore et al., 2021) [44] . These methods are sustainable and environmentally friendly, making them valuable components of IPM systems.

Altering crop spacing and sowing dates

Altering crop spacing and sowing dates significantly influences pest incidence in rice by disrupting pest life cycles or escaping peak infestation periods. Wider crop spacing enhances air circulation within the canopy, reducing humidity that favors pests like the brown planthopper (Nilaparvatalugens) (Savary et al., 2012) [47] . Adjusting sowing dates helps avoid peak infestations from pests such as stem borers (Scirpophaga incertulas) and gall midges (Orseolia oryzae) (IRRI, 2010) [19] . Optimized crop spacing and timely sowing also contribute to better pest management under climate change by minimizing pest survival and reproduction rates (Pegalepo et al., 2025) [36] .

Water management through alternate wetting and drying (AWD)

Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) is a water-saving irrigation technique that involves intermittent drying of rice fields instead of continuous flooding. This practice has shown effectiveness in disrupting the breeding habitats of water-dependent pests like the rice water weevil (Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus) and planthoppers (IRRI, 2013) [20] . It also improves root growth, reduces methane emissions, and enhances nitrogen uptake efficiency, making plants more resilient to both pests and heat stress (Norton et al., 2009) [33] .

Crop Rotation

This method disrupts the life cycles of pests reducing their populations over time. Evidence of its efficacy was demonstrated in rice, where crop rotation had improved soil health, crop yield, and pest control. In the context of rice production in several countries have demonstrated the value of this practice in pest control.

Crop Rotation

Country Crop

Intercropped Effects References Nigeria Rice cowpeas reduced stem borers population Lella & Jagadeesh, 2023 [27] Tanzania Rice maize effectively managed rice leafhoppers Esuyawka, 2025 [25] Uganda Rice groundnuts control the incidence of rice yellow mottle virus Esuyawka, 2025 [24] Kenya Rice soybeans incidence of rice gall midge Hajjar et al., 2023 [14] Ghana Rice cassava managing rice hispa infestations Hajjar et al., 2023 [14] China Rice Pontederiacordata Control rice diseases and pests, results in higher overall productivity and total income, and improves grain quality.

Xiang et al., 2021 [59] India Castor Cowpea, cluster bean, black gram, groundnut Reduced A. janata and C. punctiferalis pests; higher natural enemies Srinivasa et al., 2012 [57] India Rice Pontederia cordata 22-46% reduction in sheath blight and leaf folders; LER 1.09 Singh et al., 2023 [55] Field bund trimming and post-harvest residue crushing Field bunds often harbor alternate hosts and overwintering stages of rice pests. Regular trimming of bunds helps to eliminate shelter and breeding grounds for insects such as stem borers and rodents. Similarly, crushing and ploughing of rice stubble and other residues after harvest can destroy pest eggs and larvae, minimizing the carryover population to the next season (Baruah et al., 2015) [7] .

Use of nutrient supplements under heat stress

Under changing climate conditions, particularly during heat stress, rice plants often become physiologically weak, making them more vulnerable to pest attacks. The use of micronutrients and silicon has been found effective in enhancing plant tolerance and resistance. Siliconstrengthens plant cell walls, making it more difficult for chewing insects like the leaf folder and stem borers to penetrate (Ma, 2004) [29] . Supplementation with zinc, potassium, and boronsupports enzymatic activities and stressrelated metabolic functions, indirectly reducing susceptibility to pests like planthoppers (Chandramani et al., 2020) [8] .

Mechanical and physical measures for rice pest management

Mechanical and physical methods are essential components of Integrated Pest Management (IPM), especially in the context of sustainable and climate-resilient agriculture. These approaches aim to reduce pest populations directly through manual or mechanical means, without relying on chemical pesticides.

Light traps for insect monitoring

Light traps attract night-flying pests like stem borers (S.incertulas), leaf folders (C. medinalis), and planthoppers using UV or fluorescent light. They help monitor pest populations for timely control, especially important as climate change alters pest life cycles (Ramasamy & Jeyaprakash, 2021) [39] . Long-term trap-capture studies show that climate warming has advanced pest migration and altered population peaks, further increasing the relevance of trap-based surveillance in adaptive pest management (Yuan et al., 2019) [62] . In addition to monitoring tools, mechanical suppression tactics such as stubble destruction, deep ploughing, and residue incorporation effectively reduce overwintering stages of stem borers and leaf feeders, contributing to lower early-season pest pressure (Sithanantham et al., 2013) [5] . These approaches align with ecological engineering frameworks that emphasize minimizing chemical inputs while enhancing system resilience and natural enemy activity under changing climates (Horgan, 2018) [17] . Together, these mechanical and physical interventions strengthen sustainable rice pest management by directly reducing pest populations and improving the accuracy of decision-making in climatevulnerable rice environments.

Clipping of nursery leaves to reduce stem borer eggs

Clipping about one-third of rice seedling leaves before transplanting physically removes many stem borer egg masses, thereby reducing early infestations. This simple, low-cost practice is especially useful in organic and lowinput systems and remains effective when combined with clean nursery management (Litsinger et al., 2006) [28] .

Destruction of diseased plants to curb virus spread

Uprooting and burning virus-infected rice plants effectively curbs the spread of rice tungro virus (RTV) by eliminating primary infection sources and reducing transmission by vectors like the green leafhopper (Nephotettixvirescens). This cultural practice disrupts the virus lifecycle, preventing secondary spread in fields, especially under climate-driven vector surges (Amelia et al., 2025) [2] .

Biological control for rice pest management

Four releases of T. japonicum at density of 50,000 wasps/ha/release at weekly interval, begun on the 32 nd DAT, followed sequentially by 39 th , 46 th and 53 rd DAT (2 nd schedule of release) had positive results on the reduction of dead heart symptom by 54.7% and white ear by 66.1% (Murali-Baskaran et al., 2021) [32] . Combined strategy of pheromones traps 20/ha and 3-5 release of T. chilonus (100000 wasp/hac) record significantly lesser stem borer and leaf folder damage resulting in significant increase 38%-45% in grain yield over to traditional farming methods (Gururaj et al., 2001) [13] . YSB was parasitized by T. japonicum at 7.1%-23.1% rates in Tiruchirappalli's reported by Sharmistha et al. (2020) [50] . Different doses of T. chilonis, viz., 50,000, 75,000, 100,000, 125,000 and 150,000 parasitized eggs per hectare were tried by Chhavi et al., (2019) [9] and reported maximum control when 150,000 parasitized eggs per hectare were released. Egg releases of Trichogramma sp. @ 100000 and 1250000 per hectare significantly reduced leaf folder infestation (Sagheer et al., 2008) [46] . The efficiency of T. japonicum and T. chilonis reported by Kumar and Khan (2005) [25] on tiller damage and folded leaves varied from 78.1 % to 81.6 % from 72.6 to 81.8 %, respectively, where egg parasitoids were released @ 1,00,000/ha in rice ecosystem.

Conservation of Parasitoids and Predators

Biological control relies on conserving natural enemies of pests, such as parasitoids and predators, to naturally suppress pest populations. Important parasitoids like Apanteles spp. and Pediobius spp. attack stem borers by laying eggs inside their larvae, reducing pest outbreaks.

Similarly, predators such as the mirid bug Cyrtorhinus lividipennis prey on planthopper eggs and nymphs, providing effective biological control (Heong and Hardy, 2009) [16] . Maintaining or enhancing habitats that support these beneficial insects is crucial, especially under climate change scenarios where pest pressures may intensify. Conservation biological control reduces reliance on chemical pesticides and supports sustainable rice production (Gurr et al., 2016) [12] .

Biodiversity enhancement to improve pest resilience

Enhancing agro-biodiversity by integrating flowering plants, hedgerows, and maintaining non-crop vegetation boosts populations of natural enemies and overall ecosystem resilience. Diverse ecosystems help regulate pest populations by providing alternative prey and refuges for beneficial insects (Altieri, 1999) [1] . Biodiversity-friendly practices improve ecological balance, reduce pest outbreaks, and help rice fields adapt to the stresses of changing climate. [21] Kumar et al. (2021) [5] Annonymus, 2021 [26] Planthoppers Buprofezin 25SC + Acephate/Buprofezin 15% + Acephate mix Choudhary & Singh (2018) [10] ; Rajesh et al. (2020) [38] Planthoppers Dinotefuran 20SG @ 200 g a.i./ha 120 g Pymetrozine 50WP/acre 80 g Dinotefuran 20SG

Ratnakar et al. (2020) [45] ; Matsumura & Yoshioka (2019) [30] , Annonymous, 2021 [26] Multiple pests Thiamethoxam 25WG 20-50 g a.i./ha Khan et al. (2020) [22] ; Singh et al. (2022) [53]

Multiple pests

Chlorantraniliprole + Thiamethoxam mix125-150 g/ha Poonam et al. (2025) [37] Chemical [62] . These strategies enhance both climate resilience and sustainable pest management. Implement residue-based nutrient recycling to reduce nitrogen use by up to 25% Recycling crop residues as organic matter can reduce the need for synthetic nitrogen fertilizers by up to 25%, improving soil fertility, nutrient-use efficiency, and crop yields. Long-term field experiments in rice-wheat systems have shown that retaining and incorporating crop residues allows reduced N fertilizer rates while maintaining productivity (Singh et al., 2018) [54] . Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) approaches combining crop residues, green manure, and reduced mineral fertilizers enhance soil microbial activity, soil organic carbon, and nutrient cycling, further reducing dependence on synthetic N. Additionally, residue incorporation improves plant vigor, indirectly reducing susceptibility to pests, while lowering nitrogen runoff and greenhouse-gas emissions (Ramesh et al., 2025) [40] . These findings support residue-based nutrient recycling as a sustainable, climate-smart strategy for rice production. [49] .

Promote community-level IPM strategies integrated with weather-based forecasting tools

Acknowledgement

AcknowledgementThe authors would liketo thanks CCSHAU, Rice Research Station, Kaul for providing all thefacilities.

References

1. Altieri MA. The ecological role of biodiversity in agroecosystems. Agric Ecosyst Environ. 1999;74(13):19-31.
2. Amelia R, Putra RE, Sari DN, Prasetyo R. Mathematical modelling of roguing frequency and tungro disease suppression in rice ecosystems. J Plant Dis Dyn. 2025;18(2):115-129.
3. Anand P, Sharma V, Nair R. Heat sensitivity of resistance genes and plant defense signaling in rice. Plants. 2023;12(5):884.
4. Department of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare. Annual report 2024-25: first advance estimates of production of food grains. New Delhi: Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India; 2025. p. 1-120.
5. Anonymous. Package and practices of kharif crops. Hisar: Directorate of Extension Education, CCS Haryana Agricultural University; 2021. p. 1-180.
6. Atwal AS, Dhaliwal GS. Agricultural pests of South Asia and their management. 7th ed. New Delhi: Kalyani Publishers; 2013. p. 1-512.
7. Baruah AALH, Saikia DK, Sharma B. Cultural practices for rice pest suppression. J Agrometeorol. 2015;17(Special Issue):45-52.
8. Chandramani T, Kumar R, Ramesh K. Role of silicon and micronutrients in pest management of rice under stress conditions. Indian J Entomol. 2020;82(2):203209.
9. Chhavi, Pawan K, Sharma A, Srivastava A. Field efficacy of Trichogramma chilonis against rice leaf folder Cnaphalocrocis medinalis. J Entomol Zool Stud. 2019;7(1):600-603.
10. Choudhary P, Singh D. Role of buprofezin and acephate mixture in management of planthoppers in rice. J Entomol Zool Stud. 2018;6(4):2117-2123.
11. Esuyawkal D. Population dynamics, yield loss and management of major insect pests of rice (Oryza sativa L.): a review. Am J Entomol. 2025;9:6-14.
12. Gurr GM, Wratten SD, Luna JM. Multi-function agricultural biodiversity: pest management and other benefits. Basic Appl Ecol. 2016;17:107-116.
13. Katti G, Pasalu IC, Verma NRG, Krishnaiah K. Integration of pheromone mass trapping and biological control for management of yellow stem borer and leaf folder in rice. Indian J Entomol. 2001;63(3):325-328.
14. Hajjar MJ, Ahmed N, Alhudaib KA, Ullah H. Integrated insect pest management techniques for rice. Sustainability. 2023;15:4499.
15. Harika R, Deole S, Chowdary KS. Seasonal dynamics of major insect pests of rice and impact of abiotic factors. Uttar Pradesh J Zool. 2024;45(17):435-440.
16. Heong KL, Hardy B. Planthoppers: new threats to the sustainability of intensive rice production systems in Asia. Los Baños: IRRI; 2009. p. 1-460.
17. Horgan FG. Ecological engineering and physical measures for planthopper suppression in rice. Ann Appl Biol. 2018;172(3):279-297.
18. Hu SJ, Fu DY, Han ZL, Ye H. Density and environmental factors influencing overwintering populations of Sogatella furcifera. J Insect Sci. 2015;15:58.
19. IRRI. Climate change and rice production: implications for pest and disease management. Los Baños: International Rice Research Institute; 2010. p. 1-65.
20. IRRI. Alternate wetting and drying: a water-saving technology for rice. Los Baños: International Rice Research Institute; 2013. p. 1-30.
21. Jaglan S, Chaudhary R. Efficacy of flubendiamide and chlorantraniliprole against stem borers and leaf folders in rice. J Pest Sci. 2022;95(3):1235-1244.
22. Khan M, Verma P, Singh S. Integrated use of thiamethoxam and acephate in management of sucking pests in rice. Crop Prot. 2020;132:104889.
23. Kraker D, Rabbinge R, Van Huis A, Van Lenteren JC, Heong KL. Impact of nitrogen fertilization on rice leaf folder populations. Int J Pest Manag. 2000;46(3):225235.
24. Krishnaiah NV, Lakshmi VJ, Pasalu IC, Katti GR, Padmavathi C. Insecticides in rice: IPM past, present and future. Tech Bull No. 148. Hyderabad: Directorate of Rice Research, ICAR; 2008. p. 1-148.
25. Kumar S, Khan MA. Bio-efficacy of Trichogramma spp. against yellow stem borer and leaf folder in rice. Ann Plant Prot Sci. 2005;13:97-99.
26. Kumar V, Singh A, Sharma R. Evaluation of chlorantraniliprole against yellow stem borer in rice. Indian J Agric Sci. 2021;91(3):295-301.
27. Lella N, Jagadeesh K. Ecological IPM strategies for management of rice pests. Pharma Innov J. 2023;12:3814-3818.
28. Litsinger JA, Bandong JP, Canapi BL, De la Cruz CG, Pantua PC. Evaluation of action thresholds for chronic rice insect pests. Crop Prot. 2006;25(2):132-145.
29. Ma JF. Role of silicon in enhancing resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Soil Sci Plant Nutr. 2004;50(1):1118.
30. Matsumura M, Yoshioka H. Managing neonicotinoidresistant planthopper populations with dinotefuran. Pest Manag Sci. 2019;75(2):543-550.
31. Morya GP, Kumar R. Abundance of insect pest population in rice ecosystem under changing climate. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2020;9(2):1593-1597.
32. Murali-Baskaran R, Kanagaraj KC, Sridhar J, Jain L, Kumar J. Multiple releases of Trichogramma japonicum for biocontrol of yellow stem borer. Crop Prot. 2021;141:105471.
33. Norton GA, Heinrichs EA, Luther GC, Irwin ME. Water management for pest suppression in irrigated rice. Agric Water Manag. 2009;96(8):1134-1140.
34. NRI News. Climate change is leading to an ecological trap for a migratory insect. Nat Resour Inst News. 2025 Apr 28:1-3.
35. Department of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare. Paddy outlook 2024. New Delhi: Ministry of Agriculture; 2024. p. 1-3.
36. Pegalepo E, Bocco R, Onaga G, Nwilene F, Tamò M, Togola A, et al. Sustainable insect pest management options for rice in Sub-Saharan Africa. Insects. 2025;16(11):1175.
37. Poonam S, Verma K, Joshi P. Synergistic effects of chlorantraniliprole and thiamethoxam mixtures in rice pests. J Pest Sci. 2025;98(1):45-52.
38. Rajesh R, Kumar S, Meena A. Sustained suppression of planthopper populations using buprofezin and acephate. Pest Manag Sci. 2020;76(10):3475-3481.
39. Ramasamy P, Jeyaprakash A. Efficiency of LED light traps in monitoring rice stem borers. Indian J Entomol. 2021;83(4):668-673.
40. Ramesh K, Anil R, Prakash S. Long-term effects of crop residue recycling on soil carbon and pest management. Agron Sustain Dev. 2025;45(1):102.
41. Rani BS, Prasad YG. Influence of climatic factors on population dynamics of rice insect pests in India. Environ Monit Assess. 2020;192:481.
42. Rao M, Singh D. Impact of climate variability on aphid pest species in northern India. ARC J Agric Crop Sci. 2024;10(3):123-129.
43. Rao MS, Prasad TV, Vanaja MV, Gayatri DLA, Prabhakar M, Singh VK. Effects of elevated CO₂ and temperature on insect pests. Indian J Plant Prot. 2025;52(2):65-72.
44. Rathore S, Chandola M, Raghuvanshi R, Kaur M, Singh KV. Indigenous pest management practices of Indian hill farmers. Sustainability. 2021;13:11608.
45. Ratnakar K, Das A, Pandey S. Effectiveness of dinotefuran 20 SG against brown planthopper. J Pest Sci. 2020;93(1):55-63.
46. Sagheer M, Ashfaq M, Mansoor-ul-Hasan, Rana SA. Integration of biopesticides and Trichogramma chilonis for rice leaf folder management. Pak J Agric Sci. 2008;45:69-74.
47. Savary S, Willocquet L, Elazegui FA, Castilla NP, Teng PS. Rice pest management: prospects for sustainable intensification. Outlook Agric. 2012;41(4):229-234.
48. Sengottayan S, Senthil-Nathan S. Responses of rice and brown planthopper under elevated CO₂. Sci Rep. 2021;11:8905.
49. Sharma P, Horgan FG, Cabunagan RC. Integrated ecological strategies for managing rice tungro virus. Nat Rev Agric. 2024;3(1):45-59.
50. Sharmitha T, Leo Justin CG, Joyce Roseleen SS, Yasodha P. Natural parasitism of yellow stem borer eggs in rice. Entomon. 2020;45(3):181-188.
51. Sheng C, Wang Y, Zhang L, Hu G. Climate-driven ecological traps in migratory pest behavior. Sci Rep. 2023;13:6341.
52. Singh A, Kumar R, Patel M. Heat-induced oxidative stress in rice and effects on natural defense barriers. Indian J Plant Physiol. 2024;29(1):112-120.
53. Singh A, Kumar R, Patel M. Efficacy of systemic insecticides under changing climate conditions. Indian J Plant Prot. 2022;50(1):23-31.
54. Singh B, Singh S, Singh G. Sustainable nutrient management through residue recycling in rice. J Clean Prod. 2018;187:360-367.
55. Singh P, Singh J, Meena RS, Singh RK. Ecological IPM strategies for rice pests. Pharma Innov J. 2023;12(5A):365-370.
56. Sithanantham S, Ramasubramanian T, Regupathy A. Role of physical and mechanical tactics in rice IPM. J Biopesticides. 2013;6:47-54.
57. Srinivasa Rao G, Prasad YG, Prabhakar M, Venkateswarlu B. Intercropping for management of insect pests. J Integr Pest Manag. 2012;3(2):1-5.
58. Tanwar B, Joshi M, Chauhan P. Heat stress effects on rice metabolome and insect interactions. Rice J. 2024;17(1):9.
59. Xiang H, Ni L, Wang F, Zhao B, Wei H, Zhang J. Reduced pests and improved income through ricePontederia cordata intercropping. J Sci Food Agric. 2021;101.
60. Xiong P, Zhang C, He L, Zhan X, Han Y. Deep learning-based rice pest detection. PLoS One. 2024;19(11):e0313387.
61. Yu S, Ali J, Zhang C, Li Z, Zhang Q. Genomic breeding of green super rice varieties. Theor Appl Genet. 2020;133:1472-1482.
62. Yuan J, Liu Y, Li Y, Zhang X, Zhang B. Climate warming advances migration phenology of rice pests. Agric For Entomol. 2019;21(2):189-197.
63. Zheng H, Li Y, Wang X. Climate-smart agricultural practices for enhanced farm resilience. Environ Dev Sustain. 2024;26:1024-1045.