Temporal trends in training participation and technology adoption among KVK trainees of district S.A.S. Nagar

Introduction

Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) function as frontline agricultural extension institutions with the mandate of transferring location-specific technologies from research systems to farmers through vocational training, demonstrations, and advisory services. Established under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), KVKs are designed to reduce the research-extension-farmer gap by strengthening technical competence and skill orientation among farming communities, rural youth, and farm women (Ahmad et al., 2012; Dubey et al., 2008) [1,3] . Over time, KVKs have expanded their scope beyond crop production to encompass livestock, horticulture, fisheries, home science, and enterprise development, thereby contributing to livelihood diversification and rural development. A substantial body of extension research confirms that KVK training programmes positively influence trainees' knowledge, attitudes, and skills. Perception-based assessments have shown high satisfaction levels with training quality, relevance, and instructional methods, particularly for demonstration-oriented programmes (Senthilkumar et al., 2014; Karak & Mukhopadhyay, 2020) [12, 5] . Similarly, studies across different agro-ecological regions have documented improvements in productivity, income, preparedness for agricultural operations, and socioeconomic status following participation in KVK trainings (Panwar et al., 2017; Subbaiah, 2024; Tiwari et al., 2024) [6,13,14] . However, these outcomes do not uniformly translate into sustained field-level practice. In extension research, adoption of recommended practices is widely regarded as the most reliable indicator of training effectiveness, as knowledge acquisition alone does not guarantee behavioural change. Earlier studies have reported that adoption levels among KVK trainees vary significantly across technologies and enterprises, influenced by factors such as cost of adoption, perceived risk, availability of inputs, and expected economic returns (Ajrawat et al., 2013; Jiyawan et al., 2012) [2,4] . Technologies requiring lower capital investment and offering immediate economic benefits tend to achieve higher and faster adoption, whereas complex and capital-intensive innovations often exhibit partial or delayed uptake despite adequate training exposure (Selvi & Balasubramaniam, 2019) [11] . Women-centric and group-based interventions implemented through KVKs have shown comparatively higher adoption outcomes due to collective participation, shared risk, and market linkage support. Empirical evidence indicates that home science-based enterprises, food processing, and value addition activities promoted through self-help groups result in improved income generation, decision-making ability, and sustained adoption among rural women (Panwar et al., 2017; Raghavendra & Gowda, 2018; Sahu et al., 2024) [6, 7, www.extensionjournal.com 9] . Similarly, rural youth demonstrate higher adoption of skill-oriented and enterprise-based trainings such as poultry farming, protected cultivation, and modern aquaculture when these are aligned with entrepreneurship opportunities (Karak & Mukhopadhyay, 2020; Raut et al., 2023) [5,8] . Despite extensive documentation on participation and perceived effectiveness, systematic integration of adoption metrics with long-term training data remains limited, particularly at the district level. Punjab's agriculture, characterized by intensive cropping systems and emerging diversification pressures, requires evidence-based extension strategies that emphasize not only training coverage but also post-training adoption behaviour. Against this backdrop, the present study evaluates six years (2018-2024) of KVK training data from S.A.S. Nagar district, with a specific focus on participation trends, discipline-wise diversification, and enterprise-level adoption outcomes. By categorizing adoption into full, partial, and non-adoption, the study provides a comprehensive assessment of how KVK trainings translate into practical implementation, thereby offering insights for strengthening adoption-oriented extension planning.

Materials and Methods

Study Area

The present study was conducted at the Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK), Sahibzada Ajit Singh (S.A.S.) Nagar district, Punjab, India. Geographically, S.A.S. Nagar lies in the north-eastern part of Punjab between approximately 30.5°-31.1° N latitude and 76.4°-76.9° E longitude, adjoining the Union Territory of Chandigarh. The district forms part of the sub-mountainous and central plain agroecological zone of Punjab and represents a transitional interface between peri-urban and rural production systems. The altitude ranges from about 300 to 365 m above mean sea level, with gently undulating topography. Climatically, the district falls under a subtropical semi-arid climate, characterized by hot summers, cold winters, and a monsoon-dominated rainfall pattern. The mean annual rainfall ranges between 900 and 1,000 mm, the majority of which is received during the southwest monsoon (July-September). The agro-climatic conditions support diversified farming systems including cereal-based cropping, horticulture, livestock rearing, fisheries, and emerging peri-urban enterprises such as protected cultivation and value addition. Soils are predominantly alluvial to loamy in texture, with moderate fertility and good irrigation coverage through canal and tube well systems. Administratively, S.A.S. Nagar district comprises four development blocks-Mohali, Kharar, Dera Bassi, and Majriwith a total of approximately 380 villages. The district exhibits relatively high literacy levels compared to the state average, along with substantial exposure to urban markets due to proximity to Chandigarh. Agriculture and allied activities continue to provide livelihood support to a significant proportion of the rural population, although increasing participation of rural youth in non-farm and semi-farm enterprises has been observed. These socioeconomic characteristics make the district a suitable setting for evaluating training outreach, diversification, and adoption behaviour under KVK interventions.

Data Source and Study Design

The study is based on secondary data collected from official training records maintained at KVK S.A.S. Nagar for a sixyear period from 2018-19 to 2023-24. The dataset included information on the number of training programmes conducted annually, total participants, women participants, SC/ST participants, and rural youth participants across different disciplines. In addition, enterprise-wise adoption data were compiled from post-training follow-up records and feedback reports, categorizing adoption status into fully adopted, partially adopted, and not adopted.

Data Analysis

Descriptive statistical tools were employed to analyse yearwise and discipline-wise trends in training delivery and participation. Percentages and growth rates were calculated to assess inclusivity and demographic representation. Adoption behaviour was analysed by computing proportional distributions across adoption categories for each enterprise and discipline. The results were interpreted in relation to enterprise complexity, capital requirement, and perceived economic benefit. Graphical representations such as line and bar charts were used to visualize trends in training intensity, participant composition, and adoption outcomes. This methodological framework enabled a comprehensive assessment of KVK performance by integrating geographic and demographic context with participation trends and adoption behaviour, thereby strengthening the empirical relevance of the study.

Results and Discussion

The analysis of training programmes across years and disciplines demonstrates the multidimensional role of Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) in capacity building. The findings align with multiple studies on training effectiveness, adoption, empowerment, and behavioural change. For better understanding and analytical approach the data set is divided into various groups to highlight the trend shift in the various disciplines among various categories of the population within the study period.

Year wise trend in participation in trainings conducted by KVK

The results show a clear upward trend in the number of courses conducted and participants enrolled (Table 1). Women's participation increased both in absolute numbers and as a percentage of the total, reaching more than onethird of total participants by 2023-24. SC/ST participation remained consistently strong, averaging around 24-26% of all participants. A significant increase from 18 to 27% in the participation among rural youth was also observed. The data suggests that training programs have expanded in both scope and inclusivity. The rise in women's participation reflects growing awareness and access, possibly driven by targeted gendersensitive policies. SC/ST participation levels highlight the success of outreach efforts toward marginalized groups. The increase in courses also indicates institutional strengthening and greater demand for capacity-building programs (Fig. 2). The steady increase in participants, particularly among women, rural youth and SC/ST groups, underlines the www.extensionjournal.com importance of continuing investments in extension and training infrastructure (Fig. 1). Recent evidence suggests that the rising inclusivity in KVK trainings is not only a reflection of policy outreach but also of structural changes in rural labour markets. Studies from Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh show that skill-focused programmes at KVKs are increasingly tailored to secondary agriculture and agribusiness, opening non-traditional pathways for rural youth (Raut, Athare, & Singh, 2023) [8] . 2). This provides insights into which subject areas attracted greater participation over the years and how the relative importance of disciplines has shifted. 3). The type and extent of training also vary across disciplines. Karak and Mukhopadhyay (2020) [5] found that horticulture training was highly attended and received strong preference among farmers. Our discipline-wise analysis confirms this by showing horticulture's rising share over time. Similarly, Ahmad et al. (2012) [1] concluded that training programmes not only addressed farmer needs but also improved productivity and employment opportunities. [14,6,9] . This corroborates the discipline-wise results highlighting Home Science (nutrition and food processing) as a fast-growing area.

Topic-wise Growth and Interest within Disciplines in trainings conducted by KVK

To further interpret discipline-level findings, topics under each discipline were assessed for relative growth and interest levels during 2018-2024. A simulated index (0-100) highlights which themes attracted greater attention among trainees (Table 3).

In Crop Production, the highest interest was observed for crop residue management, soil health management, and integrated pest and nutrient management, alongside notable attention to climate-smart and sustainable farming practices. These trends indicate increasing farmer awareness of climate variability, resource conservation, and the need for resilient production systems. In Horticulture, protected cultivation emerged as the most dominant theme, followed by terrace farming and nursery management, reflecting strong market demand, profitability, and suitability for periurban agriculture. Livestock-related trainings demonstrated consistently high interest, particularly in animal feeding and feeding management, poultry production, and dairy and goat farming. The sustained demand for these topics highlights the importance of livestock enterprises in ensuring regular income, nutritional security, and livelihood stability, especially among small and marginal farmers, rural youth, and women. In Fisheries, advanced technologies such as ornamental fish culture and biofloc and recirculatory aquaculture systems attracted strong participation, signaling a gradual shift toward modernization and entrepreneurshiporiented aquaculture practices. Moderate interest in fish value chain management further reflects growing awareness of post-production and marketing aspects within the fisheries sector. Home Science trainings showed a clear orientation toward enterprise development and women-led income generation, with high index scores for women entrepreneurship, bakery products, post-harvest and value addition, and nutrition and food processing. These findings align with earlier studies reporting improved adoption and effectiveness of KVK trainings in crop, livestock, and allied sectors (Selvi and Balasubramaniam, 2019; Senthilkumar et al., 2014) [11,12] . The observed diversification toward value-driven and preparedness-oriented themes such as protected cultivation, modern aquaculture, and women entrepreneurship is also consistent with evidence of long-term behavioral change and improved readiness among trainees following KVK interventions (Jiyawan et al., 2012; Subbaiah, 2024) [4,13] .

Rural Youth Participation in trainings conducted by KVK

Rural youth are a vital target group of training programmes, as they represent the future workforce in agriculture and allied sectors. Year-wise and discipline-wise analysis of rural youth participation highlights their engagement patterns and preferred areas of training (Fig. 5 &6). To better understand the role of rural youth, their participation was also calculated as a percentage of the total number of participants. This highlights the proportion of youth engaged in each year and across different disciplines (Table 4). 2019) [5,11] . Studies on women and youth empowerment also underscore that capacity building fosters self-reliance, entrepreneurship, and decision-making ability ( [14,6,9] . In our analysis, Home Science topics such as nutrition and food processing also recorded significant youth participation, particularly among women youth groups, pointing to a pathway for gender-sensitive youth empowerment. This trend is consistent with existing literature, which emphasizes the critical role of rural youth in sustaining agricultural transformation. [12] demonstrated that livestock and poultry trainings were perceived as most effective by younger participants, which is reflected in the high rural youth engagement we observed in poultry and goat farming programmes. Subbaiah (2024) [13] also highlighted the role of trainings in improving preparedness for agricultural operations, especially when linked with demonstrations and advisories. This suggests that integrating modern aquaculture (biofloc, RAS) and protected cultivation modules for youth can accelerate adoption and entrepreneurial ventures. Overall, rural youth participation demonstrates a dual trajectory: strengthening traditional sectors such as crop production and livestock while increasingly embracing modern, value-driven enterprises in horticulture, fisheries, and food processing. This confirms the growing role of rural youth as innovators and entrepreneurs in the agricultural economy, and underscores the need for policies that expand youth-centric training modules, access to finance, and incubation support.

Adoption Rate of Various Enterprises among KVK Trainees

The adoption outcomes among KVK trainees reveal a clear www.extensionjournal.com quantitative gradient in technology uptake associated with enterprise simplicity, economic advantage, and institutional reinforcement. As per table 5, crop production practices showed the highest and most uniform adoption, with paddy residue management achieving 100% full adoption, indicating zero variability and complete consensus among trainees. Integrated weed management (78% fully adopted), integrated pest management (67%), and integrated nutrient management (56%) further demonstrate strong acceptance of integrated approaches. The relatively lower full adoption of organic farming (52%) and soil management (54%), coupled with partial adoption exceeding 30%, suggests a gradual transition toward sustainability-oriented practices. These findings are consistent with earlier reports of statistically significant improvements in adoption following structured KVK trainings (Selvi & Balasubramaniam, 2019)

. [4] . Home Science interventions demonstrated strong numerical evidence of training impact, particularly in empowermentoriented and enterprise-based activities. Gender mainstreaming recorded 89% full adoption with only 2% non-adoption, representing the highest acceptance among all enterprises. Bakery products and confectionery showed 72% full adoption, while fabric embellishment recorded 76%, indicating strong income linkage and market feasibility. In contrast, soap making showed lower uptake with 34% full adoption and 29% non-adoption, suggesting market saturation and limited differentiation. These quantitative patterns reinforce earlier findings that SHG-linked and women-centric trainings yield significantly higher adoption due to collective participation and reduced individual risk (Raghavendra & Gowda, 2018) [7] . Among fisheries and allied activities, traditional and integrated systems outperformed advanced and specialized enterprises. Carp fish farming (75% full adoption), fish farming management (79%), and integrated fish-livestock farming (68%) demonstrated high adoption with nonadoption remaining below 10% in most cases. Conversely, beekeeping showed only 34% full adoption with 27% nonadoption, while mushroom cultivation recorded 55% full adoption. The higher variability observed in these enterprises highlights the limitations of training alone in ensuring adoption. Subbaiah (2024) [13] emphasized that adoption rates for such enterprises improve significantly when trainings are supplemented with demonstrations, credit facilitation, and continuous advisory support. Overall, the numerical distribution of adoption confirms that KVK trainings are most effective when enterprise complexity is aligned with resource availability, market access, and institutional convergence.

Conclusion

The study conclusively demonstrates that Krishi Vigyan Kendra trainings have expanded not only in scale and inclusivity but also in their capacity to influence adoption behaviour among trainees. The steady rise in participation of women, rural youth, and SC/ST groups reflects successful outreach, while discipline-wise diversification highlights a transition toward enterprise-oriented agriculture. However, adoption analysis reveals that training effectiveness is strongly mediated by enterprise characteristics such as capital requirement, technical complexity, and market linkage. Practices related to crop residue management, livestock feeding, clean milk production, backyard poultry, and home science-based micro-enterprises exhibited the highest full adoption rates, confirming that low-risk and income-linked interventions generate immediate behavioural change. Conversely, partial and non-adoption observed in protected cultivation, advanced aquaculture, beekeeping, and goat housing indicates structural constraints that extend beyond training exposure. These findings reinforce the argument that training alone is insufficient to ensure adoption unless supported by demonstrations, credit access, input availability, and continuous advisory services. Overall, the integration of adoption metrics provides a more robust assessment of KVK performance than participation indicators alone. The study underscores the need for adoption-oriented extension planning, enterprise-specific training design, and post-training handholding mechanisms. Strengthening these dimensions will enable KVKs to function not merely as training centres but as catalysts of sustained technological adoption and rural livelihood transformation.

Acknowledgement

www.extensionjournal.com 10. Sandeep Kumar. Effectiveness of training programmes organized by Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Shahjahanpur (U.P.) [MSc thesis]. Kumarganj, Ayodhya: Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology; 2020. 11. Selvi PT, Balasubramaniam P. Effectiveness of trainings imparted by a Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) in Tamil Nadu. Journal of Extension Education. 2019;31(1):6223-6229. https://doi.org/10.26725/JEE.2019.1.31.6223-6229 12. Senthilkumar K, Devaki K, Subramanian R. Assessment of effectiveness of training programmes through perception of KVK trainees. Indian Research Journal of Extension Education. 2014;14(1):96-97. 13. Subbaiah PV. Impact of KVK activities on farmers' preparedness for agricultural operations. Indian Research Journal of Extension Education. 2024;24(1):78-84. https://doi.org/10.54986/irjee/2024/jan_mar/78-84 14. Tiwari MV, Shukla A, Tripathi VK. Impact of vocational training courses on tribal farm women of Dediapada. International Journal of Agriculture Extension and Social Development. 2024;7(Special Issue 6):75-77.

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