Effect of different nutrient management practices on yield and yield attributes of sorghum crop

Introduction

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is recognized as one of the world's most significant cereal crops owing to its diverse uses, strong adaptability, and vital role in global farming systems. It constitutes a staple food for large populations, particularly in the semi-arid regions of Africa and Asia, while also contributing substantially to livestock feed, industrial raw materials, and overall food security. The crop's notable ability to tolerate harsh environmental conditions including limited rainfall, elevated temperatures, and poor soil fertility highlights its importance in sustaining agricultural productivity under climate variability and resource-constrained conditions (Paterson et al., 2009) [13] . A comprehensive understanding of sorghum's origin, botanical characteristics, agronomic importance, ecological adaptability, and socio-economic significance is therefore essential to appreciate its relevance in contemporary agriculture and to support continued research and development efforts. The domestication of sorghum can be traced back approximately 5,000 to 8,000 years to northeastern Africa, particularly the regions corresponding to present-day Sudan and Ethiopia (Winchell et al., 2017) [20] . Early farmers selectively domesticated wild sorghum populations by favoring traits such as larger grains and reduced seed shattering, ultimately giving rise to cultivated varieties. From its center of origin, sorghum gradually spread across Africa and Asia and was subsequently introduced to the Americas and Australia through trade routes and human migration. At present, sorghum is grown in over 100 countries, with the United States, Nigeria, Sudan, and India ranking among the leading producers (FAO, 2023). Its resilience to drought and erratic rainfall has historically made it a reliable crop in regions vulnerable to food shortages, earning it the description "camel of crops" due to its exceptional hardiness (Taylor et al., 2019) [18] . In India, Maharashtra led sorghum production during 2023-2024 with about 1.4 million metric tonnes, followed by Karnataka and Rajasthan. Andhra Pradesh, however, recorded the highest productivity in 2024, reaching nearly 3,493 kg ha -1 , indicating the potential for substantial yield improvement through advanced management practices (Khalifa et al., 2023) [8] . Sorghum is primarily cultivated in arid and semi-arid agroecological regions because of its strong drought resistance and capacity to thrive under varied climatic and soil conditions. Between 2001 and 2020, the global average area under sorghum cultivation was about 40.9 million hectares, with India, Sudan, and Nigeria contributing significantly. During this period, average annual global production was approximately 58.7 million tonnes, with mean yields around 2.5 tonnes per hectare. Marked regional differences in productivity were evident, as North America achieved considerably higher yields than South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, where productivity remained relatively low. In India, the area under sorghum has steadily declined from 10.25 million hectares in 1999-2000 to 6.36 million hectares in 2022-23. Nevertheless, notable productivity improvements have been observed in certain systems. For instance, sorghum cultivated under zero-tillage in rice fallows of coastal Andhra Pradesh recorded yields as high as 5.32 tonnes per hectare during 2022-23, substantially exceeding the national average yield, which continues to be below 1.0 tonne per hectare. The application of organic, inorganic, and biofertilizers either individually or in combination has a pronounced influence on sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) yield and its associated yield attributes. Sorghum, being a nutrient-exhaustive crop, responds strongly to balanced nutrient supply, and integrated nutrient management plays a key role in enhancing productivity, soil health, and sustainability. Organic sources such as farmyard manure (FYM), compost, and vermicompost improve soil physical, chemical, and biological properties. Their application enhances soil structure, water-holding capacity, and microbial activity, leading to better root growth and nutrient uptake (Kumari et al., 2024) [9] . In sorghum, organic manures have been reported to increase yield attributes such as panicle length, panicle weight, number of grains per panicle, and 1000-grain weight. Although organic sources release nutrients slowly and may not always meet the immediate nutrient demand of the crop, their long-term application contributes to sustained yield improvement and resilience under rainfed conditions (Pal et al., 2024) [11] . Inorganic fertilizers supply nutrients in readily available forms and have a direct and significant impact on sorghum growth and yield. Adequate application of nitrogen promotes vigorous vegetative growth, increased leaf area, and higher photosynthetic efficiency, while phosphorus enhances root development, flowering, and grain formation. Potassium improves translocation of assimilates, grain filling, and stress tolerance (Shukla et al., 2024) [16] . The use of recommended doses of NPK fertilizers has consistently resulted in higher grain and stover yields, along with improved yield attributes such as test weight and harvest index. However, exclusive reliance on chemical fertilizers may adversely affect soil health over time. Biofertilizers such as Azotobacter, Azospirillum, and phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) play a complementary role by enhancing nutrient availability through biological processes. Nitrogen-fixing biofertilizers supplement nitrogen supply, while PSB increases the availability of native and applied phosphorus. Their application has been shown to improve yield attributes including number of effective tillers, grains per panicle, and grain weight. Biofertilizers also stimulate root growth and enhance microbial activity in the rhizosphere, leading to better nutrient use efficiency (Yadav et al., 2025) [22] . The integrated use of organic manures, inorganic fertilizers, and biofertilizers has been found to be the most effective approach for maximizing sorghum yield and improving yield components. Such combinations ensure immediate nutrient availability from inorganic sources, sustained nutrient release from organic manures, and enhanced nutrient mobilization through biofertilizers (Verma et al., 2024) [19] . Studies have consistently reported significant increases in grain and stover yield, panicle size, grain number, and test weight under integrated nutrient management compared to sole application of any single nutrient source. Moreover, this approach improves soil fertility and ensures long-term productivity, making it a sustainable strategy for sorghum cultivation (Chandra et al., 2023) [2] .

Materials and Methods

The present investigation entitled "Effect of organic sources and nutrients on yield, quality and nutrient uptake by sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.)" was systematically conducted during the Kharif seasons of 2023-24 and 2024-25. The experiment was carried out at Hanumangarh district, situated in the northern region of Rajasthan, India. Geographically, the district lies between 25°46′ to 29°57′ N latitude and 74°43′ to 75°31′ E longitude. Hanumangarh shares its northern boundary with Punjab, eastern boundary with Haryana, southern boundary with Churu district, and western boundary with Bikaner and Sri Ganganagar districts, making it an agriculturally important location in the region. The field experiment was laid out in a Randomized Block Design (RBD) comprising thirteen treatments with three replications. The treatment structure included various combinations of inorganic fertilizers, organic manures, and biofertilizers. The treatments consisted of: T 1 (control), T 2 (100% RDF: 120:60:60:40 kg ha -1 of N:P:K:S), T 3 (100% RDF + biofertilizers (Azotobacter + PSB), T 4 (75% RDF + FYM @ 5 t ha -1 ), T 5 (75% RDF + FYM @ 5 t ha -1 + biofertilizers), T 6 (75% RDF + vermicompost @ 2 t ha -1 ), T 7 (75% RDF + vermicompost @ 2 t ha -1 + biofertilizers), T 8 (50% RDF + FYM @ 10 t ha - 1 ), T 9 (50% RDF + FYM @ 10 t ha -1 + biofertilizers), T 10 (50% RDF + vermicompost @ 4 t ha -1 ), T 11 (50% RDF + vermicompost @ 4 t ha -1 + biofertilizers), T 12 (50% RDF + FYM @ 5 t ha -1 + vermicompost @ 2 t ha -1 ), and T 13 (50% RDF + FYM @ 5 t ha -1 + vermicompost @ 2 t ha -1 + biofertilizers). The length of panicle in sorghum crop was measured at physiological maturity by selecting representative plants and recording the distance from the base of the panicle to its terminal tip using a measuring scale. The number of grains per panicle in sorghum was determined at harvest by selecting representative panicles from each plot, threshing them carefully, and manually counting the total number of well-developed grains present in each panicle to obtain accurate and reliable data. Test weight in sorghum was measured by randomly selecting a representative grain sample from each treatment and recording the weight of one thousand fully developed grains using a precision electronic balance at harvest. Grain yield in sorghum was recorded by harvesting plants from the net plot area, threshing, cleaning, and weighing the grains, and converting the values to quintals per hectare. Stover yield was determined by drying and weighing the remaining biomass after grain separation. Biological yield was calculated as the sum of grain yield and stover yield on a per hectare basis.

Results and Discussion

The influence of organic and inorganic nutrient sources, along with biofertilizers, on panicle length in sorghum is presented in Table 1. A critical analysis of the data revealed that panicle length did not differ significantly among the various nutrient management treatments evaluated in the experiment. During the first cropping season (2023-24), the longest panicle length (19.11 cm) was observed under treatment T 3 , which comprised 100% of the recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) supplemented with biofertilizers (Azotobacter and phosphate-solubilizing bacteria). This treatment was closely followed by T 7 (75% RDF + vermicompost @ 2 t ha -1 + biofertilizers), which recorded a panicle length of 18.94 cm. All other treatments showed marginal increases in panicle length over the control. The shortest panicle length during this season was recorded in the control treatment (T 1 ), measuring 17.81 cm. A similar trend was evident during the second year (2024-25), wherein treatment T 3 again produced the maximum panicle length (19.32 cm), followed by T 7 with 19.14 cm. The control treatment once more recorded the minimum panicle length (18.01 cm). Despite these numerical variations, statistical analysis indicated that differences among treatments were non-significant. This suggests that integrated nutrient management may exert only a marginal influence on panicle length of sorghum under the prevailing experimental conditions (Mishra et al., 2019; Ramesh et al., 2023) [10,14] .

Number of grains per panicle

The data pertaining to the number of grains per panicle in sorghum as influenced by different combinations of organic and inorganic nutrient sources along with biofertilizers are presented in Table 1. A thorough examination of the results revealed that the number of grains per panicle differed significantly among the various nutrient management treatments imposed in the study. During the first year of experimentation (2023-24), treatment T 7 , which comprised 75% of the recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) supplemented with vermicompost at 2 t ha -1 and biofertilizers, recorded the highest number of grains per panicle (1172.21). This was closely followed by treatment T 3 , involving 100% RDF in combination with biofertilizers (Azotobacter and phosphate-solubilizing bacteria), which produced 1161.42 grains per panicle. All other treatments also resulted in significantly higher grain numbers compared to the control. In contrast, the control treatment (T 1 ), which did not receive any nutrient inputs, registered the lowest number of grains per panicle (891.12). A similar trend was observed during the second year of the study (2024-25), confirming the consistency of treatment effects across seasons. Treatment T 7 again recorded the maximum number of grains per panicle (1179), followed closely by T 3 with 1168 grains. The control treatment continued to show the minimum grain count. These findings indicate that integrated nutrient management practices, particularly the combined use of vermicompost, inorganic fertilizers, and biofertilizers, significantly enhance grain formation in sorghum, thereby improving its yield potential (Jakhar et al., 2018) [7] . The consistently lower grain numbers in the control further emphasize the critical role of balanced nutrient application in achieving optimal sorghum productivity (Yadav et al., 2022) [21] .

The data on test weight of sorghum grains as influenced by the application of organic and inorganic nutrient sources in combination with biofertilizers are presented in Table 1. Test weight is an important indicator of grain quality, as it reflects grain density and has direct implications for market value and overall produce quality. During the first year of the experiment (2023-24), the maximum test weight was recorded under treatment T 3 , which involved the application of 100% of the recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) along with biofertilizers, namely Azotobacter and phosphatesolubilizing bacteria (PSB). This treatment resulted in the highest test weight of 15.01 g per thousand grains. Treatment T 7 , comprising 75% RDF combined with vermicompost at 2 t ha -1 and biofertilizers, ranked second with a test weight of 14.73 g. All other nutrient management treatments produced significantly higher test weight values compared to the control (T 1 ), which recorded the lowest value of 9.61 g. A comparable trend was observed during the second year (2024-25). Treatment T 3 again recorded the highest test weight (14.77 g per thousand grains), followed by T 7 with 14.48 g. The control treatment consistently exhibited the minimum test weight (9.19 g). These results clearly demonstrate that integrated nutrient management involving inorganic fertilizers, organic manures such as vermicompost, and biofertilizers significantly improves test weight in sorghum, thereby enhancing grain quality and potential economic returns (Gill et al., 2018; Bekele et al., 2018) [6,1] .

The data on seed yield per hectare, as presented in Table 2, revealed significant differences among the various nutrient management treatments during both years of investigation. In the first year (2023-24), the highest seed yield was obtained under treatment T 3 , which recorded 26.67 q ha -1 , closely followed by treatment T 7 with 26.37 q ha -1 . All nutrient-treated plots produced significantly higher yields than the control treatment (T 1 ), which recorded the minimum seed yield of 13.18 q ha -1 . A similar pattern was observed during the second year (2024-25), where treatment T 3 again registered the maximum seed yield (26.82 q ha -1 ), followed by T 7 with 26.57 q ha -1 . Treatment T 3 remained significantly superior to all other treatments in terms of grain yield, while the control once again recorded the lowest yield (13.47 q ha -1 ). These findings are in agreement with Singh et al., (2015) [17] , who reported enhanced growth, grain, and straw yields with integrated nitrogen application through organic and inorganic sources. The present results further confirm that the combined use of vermicompost and biofertilizers with recommended doses of NPK fertilizers is more effective than sole nutrient application (Patil et al., 2014). The integrated application of FYM and biofertilizers with inorganic fertilizers improves soil physical properties, reduces nitrogen losses through the formation of stable organic-mineral complexes, and ensures a continuous supply of nutrients throughout the crop growth period, ultimately leading to higher yields (Gill et al., 2018; Deepshikha et al., 2024) [6,4] .

The data related to stover yield as influenced by various treatments is comprehensively presented in Table 2. The findings clearly indicate that stover yield was significantly affected by the different nutrient management treatments applied in the study, reflecting the varying impacts these treatments had on the overall growth vigor and biomass production of the sorghum plants. During the first year of experimentation in 2023-24, the highest stover yield of 28.85 quintals per hectare was recorded under treatment T 7 , which involved the application of 75% of the recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) combined with 2 tons per hectare of vermicompost and biofertilizers. This superior yield was closely followed by treatment T 3 , which consisted of 100% RDF along with biofertilizers, specifically Azotobacter and phosphatesolubilizing bacteria (PSB), producing a stover yield of 28.32 quintals per hectare. In stark contrast, the control treatment (T 1 ), which did not receive any nutrient inputs, recorded the lowest stover yield of only 15.77 quintals per hectare. Similarly, in the second year of the study conducted in 2024-25, a comparable trend was observed. Treatment T 7 again led with the maximum stover yield of 30.47 quintals per hectare, with treatment T 3 following closely behind at 29.90 quintals per hectare. The control group remained at the lowest end of the spectrum, recording a stover yield of just 16.57 quintals per hectare. The notable improvement in green fodder yield under these treatments can primarily be attributed to the enhancement of several key agronomic traits facilitated by the judicious application of NPK fertilizers. The increased stover production observed in this study was largely a cumulative consequence of improvements in plant height, the number of branches, and dry matter accumulation, all of which are critical growth parameters contributing to biomass yield. Essentially, the positive effects on these growth characteristics collectively translated into superior green fodder and stover yields. Supporting these findings, earlier works reported significant enhancements in yield parameters following the combined use of farmyard manure (FYM) and bio-fertilizers along with varying levels of inorganic fertilizers. Organic manures like FYM contribute directly available nutrients to the plants and possess the additional benefit of solubilizing fixed forms of nutrients in the soil, thereby improving nutrient availability. Furthermore, these organic inputs significantly enhance the physicochemical properties of the soil, which in turn promotes healthier plant growth (Mishra et al., 2019) [10] . Bio-fertilizers contribute importantly by fixing atmospheric nitrogen through the proliferation of beneficial microbial populations in the soil, thereby supplying additional nitrogen to the plants. This enhanced nitrogen nutrition leads to improved yield attributes and ultimately results in higher overall yield. Beyond nitrogen fixation, bio-fertilizers promote the stimulation of rhizospheric microorganisms, modify nutrient uptake mechanisms in the plants, mobilize soil phosphates, and enhance nitrogen fixation efficiency. They also facilitate siderophore production, which aids in making essential micronutrients more accessible to the plant root system (Samruthi et al., 2020) [15] . These synergistic interactions between organic manures, bio-fertilizers, and mineral fertilizers enhance the nutrient use efficiency and soil health, thereby fostering greater biomass production and culminating in significantly increased green forage and stover yields. Consequently, adopting an integrated nutrient management approach that combines organic amendments like vermicompost or FYM with bio-fertilizers and recommended doses of inorganic fertilizers is highly effective in improving the growth vigor and productivity of sorghum crops under field conditions (Delei et al., 2023).

The data presented in Table 2 illustrate the effect of different organic and inorganic nutrient management practices on the biological yield of sorghum. An analysis of the results from the first year of experimentation (2023-24) revealed that the maximum biological yield (55.22 q ha -1 ) was obtained under treatment T 7 , which involved the application of 75% of the recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) supplemented with vermicompost at 2 t ha -1 and biofertilizers. This treatment was closely followed by T 3 , which recorded a biological yield of 54.99 q ha -1 . All other treatments also produced significantly higher biological yields compared to the control, which recorded the lowest value of 28.95 q ha -1 . A comparable trend was observed during the second year (2024-25). Treatment T 7 once again resulted in the highest biological yield (57.04 q ha -1 ) under integrated nutrient application, whereas the control treatment (T 1 ) registered the minimum biological yield of 30.84 q ha -1 . These consistent results across both years clearly demonstrate the superiority of integrated nutrient management practices in enhancing biological yield of sorghum, supporting earlier findings reported by Gill et al., 2018; Deepshikha et al., 2024 [6,4] .

Conclusion

The results of the present study clearly demonstrate that integrated nutrient management practices exert a pronounced and consistent influence on the yield and yield attributes of sorghum across both years of experimentation. While panicle length was not significantly affected by different nutrient treatments, key reproductive and yield parameters such as number of grains per panicle, test weight, seed yield, stover yield, and biological yield responded significantly to the combined application of organic, inorganic, and biofertilizer sources. Treatments involving the integration of recommended doses of NPK fertilizers with vermicompost or farmyard manure and biofertilizers (notably T 3 and T 7 ) consistently outperformed the control and sole nutrient applications. The enhanced performance under these treatments can be attributed to improved nutrient availability, greater nutrient use efficiency, enhanced soil physical and biological properties, and sustained nutrient release throughout the crop growth period. Overall, the study confirms that the synergistic use of organic manures, biofertilizers, and inorganic fertilizers is a highly effective and sustainable strategy for improving sorghum productivity and biomass yield under field conditions.

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