Comparative evaluation of improved berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) varieties for fodder yield, yield gap analysis, economics, adoption and horizontal spread through participatory approach

Introduction

Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) is one of the most important winter season leguminous fodder crops and is popularly known as the "King of Fodders" due to its high biomass production, superior palatability and excellent nutritive value. It is ideally suited for areas below 1700 m altitude with assured irrigation facilities. Berseem originated in the Nile Valley of Egypt, where it has been cultivated for centuries as an irrigated annual forage crop. The crop performs best under cool to moderately cool climatic conditions and is generally sown from the second fortnight of October to the first fortnight of November under irrigated conditions. In India, berseem varieties are multi-cut in nature and provide highly palatable, succulent and nutritious green fodder ranging from 90 to 110 t ha⁻¹ in 4-6 cuttings. The first cutting is taken 30-35 days after sowing, followed by subsequent cuttings at an interval of 20-25 days from November to April. Berseem fodder is rich in nutritional quality, containing 17-22% crude protein, 42-49% neutral detergent fibre, 35-38% acid detergent fibre, 24-25% cellulose and 7-10% hemicellulose, with a dry matter digestibility of about 70%. In addition to fodder production, berseem also improves soil physical, chemical and biological properties through nitrogen fixation. Owing to its rapid growth, excellent regeneration after cutting, longer duration of fodder availability and high biomass yield, berseem is highly suited to sub-tropical regions of northern and eastern India with reliable irrigation (Saini and Chowdhury, 1993; Gupta et al., 2016) [6,7] . The inclusion of berseem in livestock feeding significantly reduces the cost of feeding milch animals by partially replacing mineral concentrates (Kumar et al., 2021) [8] . In India, major feed resources for livestock include natural grasses, community grazing lands, crop residues, cultivated fodder crops, tree leaves and agro-industrial by-products. However, availability of green fodder remains inadequate in several states. Uttar Pradesh faces a green fodder deficit of about 23.6%, whereas Madhya Pradesh has a surplus of 47.5%. Overall, the central zone comprising Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh shows a green fodder deficit of 4.8% (Roy et al., 2019) [1] . In Uttar Pradesh, cultivated land remains the primary source of green fodder, followed by pasture and fallow lands. Low productivity of fodder crops in the region is mainly attributed to the continued use of old varieties, higher seed rate, improper agronomic practices and the prevalence of biotic and abiotic stresses. Therefore, there is a strong need to create awareness among farmers regarding location-specific improved varieties and scientific cultivation practices to enhance fodder production and productivity. In this context, Front Line Demonstrations (FLDs) were conducted during 2017-18 to 2023-24 to introduce and disseminate improved berseem varieties at farmers' fields. The present study evaluates the impact of FLDs on yield enhancement, yield gaps, technology adoption and horizontal spread of improved berseem varieties in the district.

Methodology

Gorakhpur district falls under the North Eastern Plain Zone of Uttar Pradesh and is agriculturally important for crop-livestockbased farming systems. Mahayogi Gorakhnath Krishi Vigyan Kendra (MGKVK), Gorakhpur conducted frontline demonstrations (FLDs) on berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) during the rabi seasons from 2017-18 to 2022-23. A total of 200 FLDs were organized in the operational villages of the KVK, covering an area of 26 ha. Before initiating the demonstrations, an extensive baseline survey was conducted to identify need-based farmers. Receptive and innovative farmers were selected each year through group meetings, considering the accessibility of the site and the adaptive attitude of the farmers. Skill-oriented training programmes were imparted to the selected farmers on various agro-techniques for enhancing green fodder productivity. The demonstrations were conducted on farmers' fields and were regularly monitored from sowing to harvesting by scientists of MGKVK, Gorakhpur. Field days and group meetings were organized to showcase the performance of the demonstrated technologies to farmers of the same and neighbouring villages, thereby facilitating the horizontal spread of technologies. All critical inputs, including improved berseem varieties BB-2 and BL-42, were demonstrated along with the recommended package of practices, viz. proper land preparation, recommended seed rate, time and method of sowing, balanced fertilization @ 30:80:60 kg N:P₂O₅:K₂O ha⁻¹, seed treatment with Trichoderma and Rhizobium culture @ 5 g kg⁻¹ of seed, proper irrigation scheduling, weed management, and improved plant protection measures (Table 1). The demonstration plots were closely supervised by MGKVK scientists. Data on green fodder yield and cost parameters were collected separately for FLD plots and farmers' practice plots by KVK scientists. Information on adoption and horizontal spread of technologies was collected from the participating farmers using a structured interview schedule. The prevailing average prices of inputs and outputs during each year of demonstration were used to compute cost of cultivation, net returns, and benefit-cost ratio. The adoption gap index was calculated using the formula suggested by Dubey et al. (1981) [5] , which represents the percentage deviation of farmers' practices from the recommended improved practices. The yield gap was also comprising at least two components i.e. Yield gap I and Yield gap II (Mondal, 2011). Yield Gap I refer to the difference between potential yield and farm yield obtained at demonstration plots, while Yield Gap II, reflecting the effects of biophysical and socio-economic constraints, was the difference between yield obtained at the demonstration plot and actual yield obtained on farmers' fields. The yield gaps (table 3) were estimated as follows:

where, Y P is the potential yield Y D is the demonstration plot yield Y F is the existing farmers yield However, data about adoption and horizontal spread of technologies were collected from the farmers with the help of interview schedule. Data were subjected to suitable statistical methods. The following formulae were used to assess the impact on different parameters of fodder production.

Results and Discussion

Green fodder Yield performance

In berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L.), the first cutting was taken 30 days after sowing, followed by subsequent cuttings at an interval of 20-25 days. The data presented in Table 1 indicate that berseem varieties had a significant influence on green fodder yield across 5-6 cuttings. Green fodder yield varied significantly among the varieties at different cutting stages. Among the evaluated varieties, BB-2 recorded the highest total green fodder yield (847 q ha⁻¹), which was significantly superior to BL-42 (791 q ha⁻¹). In some farmers' fields, berseem was harvested up to eight cuttings, resulting in higher cumulative green fodder production. The BB-2 variety was highly preferred by farmers owing to its higher green fodder yield and greater number of cuttings compared to the traditionally cultivated varieties in the region. The observed variation in green fodder yield among varieties can be primarily attributed to their genetic potential and growth characteristics. These findings are in conformity with earlier reports by Kale and Takawale (2025) [9] , who also observed significant differences in fodder yield performance among berseem varieties, thereby supporting the results of the present study.

Impact of Frontline Demonstrations on Green Fodder Yield

The impact of frontline demonstrations (FLDs) on the yield enhancement of berseem fodder is presented in Table 1. The results revealed that the overall mean green fodder yield in the demonstrated plots was 819.60 q ha⁻¹ for variety BB-2 and 790.50 q ha⁻¹ for variety BL-42, whereas the corresponding yields under farmers' practice (control plots) were 578.13 q ha⁻¹ and 653.75 q ha⁻¹, respectively. The demonstrated plots recorded a significant increase in green fodder yield over farmers' practice, with yield advantages of 43.72% in BB-2 and 20.97% in BL-42. During the demonstration period, the percentage increase in yield ranged from 17.19 to 63.00% in BB-2 and 17.29 to 25.39% in BL-42 across different years. The substantial improvement in green fodder yield under FLDs clearly indicates the positive impact of improved varieties and recommended production technologies over existing farmers' practices. These findings highlight the effectiveness of frontline demonstrations as a tool for enhancing fodder productivity in the demonstrated areas.

Technology Gap, Extension Gap and Technology Index under FLDs

The comparative analysis of technology gap (TG), extension gap (EG) and technology index (TI) for berseem varieties BB-2 and BL-42 under front line demonstrations is presented in Table 1. The results revealed noticeable variation between the two varieties, reflecting differences in adoption level and field performance under farmers' conditions. The technology gap was lower in BB-2 (153.4 q/ha) as compared to BL-42 (209.5 q/ha), indicating that the demonstrated technology in BB-2 was relatively more effective in approaching the potential yield. The higher technology gap observed in BL-42 may be attributed to variability in soil fertility, irrigation scheduling, and management practices across farmers' fields. The extension gap, which represents the difference between demonstrated yield and farmers' practice, was considerably higher in BB-2 (268.7 q/ha) than in BL-42 (136.8 q/ha). This clearly indicates a wider scope for yield enhancement in BB-2 through effective extension efforts, training programmes and timely availability of quality inputs. The technology index, which reflects the feasibility and suitability of the demonstrated technology, was recorded to be 15.3 per cent in BB-2 and 21.0 per cent in BL-42. The lower technology index in BB-2 suggests better adaptability of the technology under local conditions, whereas the higher value in BL-42 indicates the need for refinement in agronomic practices and stronger extension support for achieving higher productivity. Overall, the results demonstrate that front line demonstrations were effective in reducing yield gaps and improving green fodder yield of berseem. However, the presence of technology and extension gaps highlights the importance of continued capacity building, field-level guidance and dissemination of recommended practices to realize the full yield potential of improved berseem varieties. These results are in conformity with those reported by Khadda et al. (2021); Jain et al. (2019) [3,4] .

Impact of Front Line Demonstrations (FLDs) on Berseem in relation to Yield Gap

The impact of front line demonstrations (FLDs) on berseem in relation to yield gaps during 2017-18 to 2023-24 is presented in Table 2. The analysis of Yield Gap I and Yield Gap II provides insight into the extent of research-field and extension gaps under farmers' conditions. For berseem variety BB-2, Yield Gap I ranged from 14.4 to 16.5 per cent during 2017-18 to 2019-20, with a mean value of 15.33 per cent. The relatively low Yield Gap I indicates that the demonstrated technology was effective in narrowing the gap between potential yield and realized yield under FLD conditions. Yield Gap II for BB-2 was comparatively higher, varying from 22.15 to 39.01 per cent, with an average of 23.74 per cent. This highlights a substantial difference between demonstrated yield and farmers' practice, indicating considerable scope for enhancing productivity through improved adoption of recommended practices such as quality seed use and seed treatment with Rhizobium culture. In the case of berseem variety BL-42, Yield Gap I varied from 19.3 to 22.0 per cent during 2020-21 to 2023-24, with a mean of 20.95 per cent, which was higher than that observed in BB-2. This suggests relatively greater constraints in achieving the potential yield of BL-42 under field conditions. Yield Gap II for BL-42 ranged from 14.74 to 20.25 per cent, with a mean value of 17.29 per cent, indicating a comparatively narrower extension gap and gradual improvement in farmers' adoption of the demonstrated technology over the years. Overall, the results clearly demonstrate that FLDs played a significant role in reducing yield gaps in berseem cultivation. The lower Yield Gap I observed in BB-2 reflects better adaptability and feasibility of the technology, while the relatively higher Yield Gap II emphasizes the need for intensified extension efforts to further improve farmers' yield levels. For BL-42, the higher Yield Gap I coupled with a lower Yield Gap II suggests the need for refinement of production practices along with continued capacity building of farmers. The findings underscore the importance of sustained extension interventions to bridge both research and adoption gaps and to realize the full yield potential of improved berseem varieties under farmers' field conditions. The findings are in line with that reported by Singh et al. (2020) [10] .

Economics of Berseem cultivation under Improved Technology (IT) and Farmers' Practice (FP)

The economic impact of front line demonstrations (FLDs) on berseem cultivation, as presented in Table 3, clearly demonstrates the superiority of improved technological interventions (IT) over farmers' practice (FP) in terms of profitability. The adoption of improved varieties along with recommended production practices resulted in higher gross and net monetary returns with only a marginal increase in the cost of cultivation. For berseem variety BB-2, the average cost of cultivation under IT (₹36,400/ha) was only 3.88 per cent higher than FP (₹35,023/ha). However, this marginal increase in cost led to a substantial enhancement in returns, as evident from the 47.84 per cent increase in gross monetary returns and a remarkable 127.63 per cent increase in net returns over farmers' practice. The average additional cost of cultivation (₹1,377/ha) generated an additional net return of ₹25,490/ha, indicating a highly favourable cost-benefit relationship. The benefit-cost ratio (BCR) improved significantly from 1.66 under FP to 2.33 under IT, with an average effective gain of ₹24,113/ha, thereby establishing the economic viability of BB-2 under FLD conditions. In the case of berseem variety BL-42, the average cost of cultivation under IT (₹37,175/ha) increased marginally by 1.97 per cent over FP (₹36,463/ha). The demonstrated technology recorded an average 20.98 per cent increase in gross monetary returns and a 45.28 per cent increase in net returns over farmers' practice. The additional cost of cultivation (₹713/ha) resulted in an additional net return of ₹12,963/ha, while the BCR improved from 1.79 to 2.13 under IT. The average effective gain of ₹12,250/ha further confirms the economic advantage of adopting improved technology in BL-42. Overall, the pooled analysis of both berseem varieties revealed that FLDs resulted in an average 34.41 per cent increase in gross monetary returns and an 86.46 per cent increase in net returns, with only a 2.93 per cent increase in cost of cultivation. The improvement in BCR from 1.73 under FP to 2.23 under IT and an average effective gain of ₹18,181.5/ha clearly indicate that improved technological interventions in berseem cultivation are economically viable, farmer-friendly and suitable for large-scale dissemination to enhance fodder-based farm income. The results are in are in consonance with the findings of Satyajeet et al. (2024) [2] and Khadda et al. (2021) [3] .

Impact of FLDs on adoption of fodder production technologies

Front Line Demonstrations (FLDs) significantly improved the adoption of recommended berseem production technologies (Table 4). Adoption of land preparation with FYM increased from 70.0% to 100%, while use of recommended varieties (BB-2 and BL-42) recorded the highest increase from 5.0% to 80.0%. Adoption of the recommended seed rate increased from 27.5% to 90.86%, and seed treatment practices improved from 22.5% to 86.0% after demonstrations. Timely sowing adoption increased from 69.0% to 93.5%, whereas recommended sowing method achieved full adoption (100%). Nutrient management practices showed a substantial rise from 19.0% to 83.0%, and adoption of need-based plant protection increased from 12.0% to 38.0%. Overall, FLDs resulted in a 209.80% cumulative improvement in technology adoption, demonstrating their effectiveness in enhancing farmers' knowledge, confidence and adoption behaviour, which ultimately contributed to improved productivity and profitability of berseem cultivation. These results are in close conformity with the findings recorded in the case of Berseem crop (Singh Bacchu 2016) [11] .

Impact of FLDs on Varietal Replacement of Berseem

Front Line Demonstrations (FLDs) effectively facilitated varietal replacement in berseem cultivation (Table 5). Prior to demonstrations, farmers predominantly cultivated old and mixed local varieties with lower productivity. Introduction of improved berseem varieties BB-2 and BL-42 through FLDs resulted in a clear shift towards high-yielding and adaptable varieties. This replacement highlights the role of FLDs in accelerating adoption of improved fodder varieties and enhancing productivity under farmers' field conditions. This finding is in corroboration with the findings of Singh et al. (2020) [10] .

Impact of FLDs on Horizontal Spread of Different Varieties Berseem

Front Line Demonstrations (FLDs) resulted in a substantial horizontal spread of improved berseem varieties in the district (Table 6). The area under berseem variety BB-2 increased from 5 ha before demonstrations to 30 ha after demonstrations, registering a 500 per cent increase. Similarly, the area under berseem variety BL-42 expanded markedly from 20 ha to 110 ha, showing a 450 per cent increase. The rapid expansion in cultivated area indicates strong farmer acceptance of the demonstrated varieties due to their higher fodder yield potential, better regeneration after cutting and adaptability under local conditions. These results confirm the effectiveness of FLDs in promoting large-scale adoption and dissemination of improved berseem varieties.

Conclusion

The Front Line Demonstrations (FLDs) on berseem conducted during 2017-18 to 2023-24 proved to be an effective extension approach for enhancing fodder productivity, profitability and technology adoption under farmers' field conditions. Demonstrations of improved varieties BB-2 and BL-42 along with recommended production practices resulted in significant improvement in green fodder yield, reduction in yield gaps and better realization of potential yield. The economic analysis revealed higher gross and net returns with improved benefit-cost ratio compared to farmers' practice, despite a marginal increase in cost of cultivation. FLDs also led to substantial adoption of improved technologies such as recommended varieties, seed rate, seed treatment and sowing methods. The marked horizontal spread and varietal replacement further indicate strong farmer acceptance and sustainability of the interventions. Overall, FLDs played a crucial role in popularizing improved berseem production technologies and can be effectively used to bridge fodder demand-supply gaps in the region.

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