Biological suppression of major insect pests in mango ecosystems

Introduction

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) belongs to the Anacardiaceae family and originated in Indo-Burma. It has since spread to the tropics and subtropics. India boasts the most diverse mango collection, with over 1000 identified types (Mukherjee, 1997) [27] . Mango farming in India dates back 4,000-6000 years. Hsüan-tsang is believed to be the first to popularize mango outside of India. Historical records and palaeobotanical evidence support its origin in the Indo-Burma-Malay region. It spread to China in the 7 th century, East Africa about the 10 th at various stages of growth and development, contributing to significant yield and quality losses in mango production. Key pest distribution varies by area in India. Insect pests, including Diptera, Hemiptera and Lepidoptera as well as secondary and occasional pests, pose a significant danger to mango production (Verghese, 1998) [55] . In this context, biological control has become a viable and environmentally responsible substitute for chemical pest control. Utilizing living natural enemies like parasitoids, entomopathogenic fungi, bacteria, viruses and predators to reduce pest populations to levels that may be economically controlled is known as biological control. In order to sustain long-term pest management with the least possible negative impact on the environment, it is a key component of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) techniques. The use of biological control in mango ecosystems has regained attention because to recent developments in biocontrol technology and growing awareness of sustainable agricultural methods. The objective of this review paper is to present a thorough analysis of the biological control agents utilized in mango farming, including their mechanisms of action, efficacy and possibilities for incorporation into commercial production systems.

Mango major insect pest and their biological control 1. Thrips

• Conservation of natural enemies that include predatory thrips, predatory mites (e.g. Amblyseius spp.), anthocorid bugs or minute pirate bugs (Orius spp.), ground beetles, lacewings, hoverflies and spiders (Venkata et al. 2018) [54] . • Apply neem soap (10 g/l) or pesticides containing neem to stop thrips from establishing (Venkata et al. 2018) [54] .

• Aleurodothrips fasciapennis (Franklin) and Haplothrips

bedfordi Jacot-Guillarmod were the only predatory thrips recorded (Grove et al. 2001) [16] . • Two percent neem oil has been found to be effective against adult thrips. When pollinators are at their least active, midday is the ideal time to spray (Aliakbarpour et al. 2011) [2] .

Leafhoppers

• Conservation of natural enemies, particularly predators such as coccinellids (e.g., Coccinella septempunctata, C. transversalis, and Menochilus sexmaculatus) and spiders, to suppress leafhoppers (Venkata et al. 2018) [54] . • The M. anisopliae strain (MaIIHR) offers a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative to chemical insecticides for control of mango hoppers (Radha et al. 2025) [34] . • Entomopathogenic fungi such as Verticillium lecanii, Metarhizium anisopliae (1x108 cfu/ml) and Beauveria bassiana (108 cfu/ml) on tree trunks twice during flowering and once during off-season help manage hopper population (Munj et al. 2025) [28] . • Spray botanical pesticides such as azadirachtin (1% at 3 ml/l), neem oil and pungam oil (1% at 10 ml/l) on low hopper populations (4/panicle) (Chaudhari et al. 2017) [5] . • Two botanicals, Neem extract and Mahogoni extract, were tested at three concentrations (0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5%) to control Amritodus atkinsoni L. However, Neem extract (1.5%) outperformed Mahogoni extract (1.5%) (Shawan et al. 2018) [43] .

• The biopesticide azadirachtin-based Neem oil (0.3%) was efficient against mango hoppers (Adnan et al.

2014) [1] . • Spray Neem Azal (10000 ppm @ 3 ml/lit. of water) during panicle emergence, followed by Nimbicidene (1500 ppm @ 3 ml/l of water) 15 days later. After 15 days, apply a third spray of Neem Azal (10000 ppm @ 3 ml/lit. of water), followed by a fourth spray of Nimbicidene (1500 ppm @ 3 ml/l of water). This module is used to control mango hoppers (Kumari et al.

2014) [22] . • Egg parasitoids such as Gonatocerus sp., Aprostocetus sp. and Polynema sp., have been employed to control mango hoppers (Fasih and Srivastava, 1990) [13] . • Mango hoppers have been controlled with predators such as Chrysoperla carnea (Kimmins), Mallada boninensis (Okomote) and Bochartia sp. Mantidae and Lygaeidae have been observed feeding on mango hopper nymphs (Fasih and Srivastava, 1990) [13] . • For the first time in India, an entomopathogenic fungus from the Hirsutella genus was utilized against mango hoppers (Choudhary et al. 2012) [6] . • Beauveria bassiana also effective to control leafhoppers (Hossain et al. 2019) [19] . • Beauveria bassiana, neem oil, mahogany oil, and karanja oil were the four insecticides (one microbe and three botanicals) that were tested against the mango hopper (Rahman et al. 2018) [36] . • Mango hopper counts were lower when Verticillium lecanii 1.15% WP (2x108 cfu/g) was present on tree trunks during the off-season and during the flowering period. This was comparable to Metathizium anisopliae, which also had 1.15% WP (2x108 cfu/g) on tree trunks during both periods (Raghunandan et al. 2020) [35] . • Neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) at 5% was shown to be the most efficient biopesticide that were studied in lowering the incidence of A. atkinsoni. This was followed by Lecanicillium lecanii at 1.15% WP, neem oil at 1%, and Neem Leaf Extract (NLE) at 10% (Mohapatra et al. 2019) [25] .

Mealybugs

• Preservation of biocontrol agents (predators) such as Sumnius renardi, Rodolia fumida and Menochilus sexmaculatus. • Ladybird beetles (Cryptolaemus montrouzieri) were shown to be effective predators at a rate of ten per plant (Munj et al. 2025) [28] . • It has also been discovered that applying a Beauveria bassiana product (2 g/l) or 5% NSKE around tree trunks during the second week of December works well (Rai et al. 2019) [38] . [8,24] .

White mango scale

• In South Africa, it was noticed that Chilocorus nigrita (Fabricius) and Rhyzobius lophanthae Blaisdell (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) were consuming WMS (Coll and Abd-Rabou,1998) [7] . • Four natural enemies, including Cryptolaemus montrouzieri, Chilocorus stigma, Chilocorus bipustulatus larvae, Chrysoperla carnea, and an unknown lady beetle larvae, were discovered to prey on white mango scale (Wale & Melis, 2024) [57] .

• In South Africa, Encarsia sp. (Hymenoptera:

Aphelinidae) parasitoids feed on A. tubercularis, with a parasitism rate of 17.7% on mango crops (Schoeman, 1987) [42] . • Ladybird beetle Chilocorus sp. (Coleoptera:

Coccinellidae) larvae feed on white mango scale at all stages. The studies concluded that the scale on white mango scale does not interfere with the feeding of Chilocorus sp. Larvae were able to reach the body of the scale and chew it (Djirata et al. 2016) [11] . [51] .

Shoot gall psylla

• Black ladybird beetle, purple pirate insect and brown lace all contribute significantly to pest population suppression (Kadam et al. 2017) [20] . • Nimbicidine, neem seed kernel extract, Baeauveria bassiana also used to control shoot gall psylla (Rahman et al. 2016) [37] . [17] . • Predators of the cecidomyiid included Formica sp., Oecophila spp., and Camponotus spp. (Pena et al.

Midges

1998) [32] . • A number of parasitoids have been introduced to India; species such as Chrysonotomyia pulcherrima and Chrysonotomyia spp. Have been released in Oman so far (Sankaran & Mjeni, 1988) [41] . [4] . • Sweet flag stolen extract, Nimex and Lantana camera is botanical insecticide also used to control mango stem borer (Magar et al. 2022) [23] . [21,40] . • Nagyruss P., Barcon Greeni Ashmead, Meteorus sp., Araneus sinhagadensis, Stagodyphus sarasinorum, and Serratia marcescens were discovered in Malihabad (Singh, 1993) [46] . • In this study, azadirachtin 1500 ppm @ 33 ml was found to be more efficient than other bio pesticides against mango shoot borer. The effectiveness of bio pesticides in this study is as follows: azadirachtin 1500 ppm at 33 ml, azadirachtin 1500 ppm at 40 ml, azadirachtin 1500 ppm at 27 ml, azadirachtin 1500 ppm at 20 ml and NSKE 500 gm. Beauveria bassiana has 2x10 8 CFU/gm, followed by Metarrhizium anisopliae and Verticillium lacani, both with 2x10 8 CFU/gm. (Patel & Pandya, 2022) [31] .

Mango stem borers

Mango shoot borers

Fruit flies

• Augmentative Releases of Diachasmimorpha longicaudata (Ashmead) parasitoids for control fruit fly (Montoya et al. 2000) [26] .

• Diachasmimorpha species have been introduced to various parts of the world for the traditional biological control of these pests (Wharton, 1989) [58] . • The female Diachasmimorpha longicaudata (Ashmead), a solitary tephritid fruit fly endoparasitoid, responded favorably (Eben et al. 2000) [12] .

Stone weevil

• Nuclear polyhedrosis virus was detected in Bangalore (Shukla et al. 1984) [44] . In Tripura, ants (Oecophylla smaragdina, Camponotus sp., and Monomorium sp.), fungi (Aspergillus sp.) and mites (Rhizoglyphus sp.) preyed on larvae, pupae and hibernating adults (De and Pande, 1988) [9] .

Leaf webber

• An important larval parasitoid in Kerala was identified as Goniozus sp. (George and Abdurahman, 1985) [14] . • The parasite Hormius, Tetrastichus and Pediobius bruchicida (Rondani) are the natural enemies to control leaf webbe (Singh, 1993) [46] . • The antagonist Aspergillus flavus used against pest (Gupta & Gopal, 2002; Srivastava & Tandon, 1980) [18,47] . • The Parasitoid Hormiusa and Goniozus natural enemies effective against pest (NAIP, 2022; George & Abdurahman, 1985) [29,15] . • Brachymeria lasus natural enemies for control of mango leaf Webber (Rajkumar & Shukla, 2019; Singh, 1993) [39,46] . • Nimbicidine 0.2% and Nemactine 0.4% are botanical pesticide used against mango leaf Webber (Singh, 1993) [46] .

Coleoptera: Coccinellidae

The adult and larval stages of the ladybug actively search for, capture and ingest pest.

2018 [54] Predator Chrysoperla carnea (Kimmins), Mallada

Mango hoppers are controlled through predation by their larval stage. The larvae aggressively hunt for food, particularly mango hopper nymphs with soft bodies.

Fasih and Srivastava, 1990 [13] Egg parasitoid Aprostocetus sp., Hymenoptera: Eulophidae

The female wasp deposits her eggs within the mango hopper's eggs and the parasitic larva develops internally, eating and destroying the host egg in the process.

Fasih and Srivastava, 1990 [13] Egg parasitoid Gonatocerus sp. And Polynema sp

Hymenoptera: Mymaridae

These wasps put their eggs within the hoppers' eggs, preventing them from hatching and controlling their numbers.

Fasih and Srivastava 1990 [13] 2 Mealybug

Predator

C. montrouzieri Coleoptera: Coccinellidae

Both the adult and larval stages engage in direct predation.

Mani et al. 2011 [24] Parasitoid 1043nagyruss p.

Hymenoptera :Encyrtidae

Parasitism, in which the female wasp lays an egg inside the mealybug's body; and secondarily, host feeding.

Narasimham and

Chacko, 1988 [30] Parasitoid Coccophagus sp.

Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae

Larvae develop internally within the mealybug host. The major form of action is parasitism, which ultimately kills the host insect.

Narasimham and Chacko, 1988 [30] 3 Midges

Parasitoids

Eupelmus sp Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae

The female deposit eggs inside or on the victim's body, and the developing wasp larvae feed on and finally kill the host.

Grover, 1986 [17] Endoparasitoids Platygaster sp.

Hymenoptera: Platygastridae

The female wasp deposits her eggs within the midge larvae, and the growing parasitoid larvae feed and mature internally, eventually killing the host midge before it can finish its life cycle.

Grover, 1986 [17] Parasitoid Pteromalid Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae Pteromalid wasps are parasitoids that lay their eggs within or on mango midge larvae or pupae.

Grover, 1986 [17] Before developing into adult wasps, the larvae feed on the midge and kill it. Mango shoot gall psylla by predation. Both adult beetles and their larvae are natural enemies of the psyllid, feeding on its eggs and nymphs, which are often found on fresh leaves and inside forming galls.

Predators

Kadam et al.

2017 [20] Predator Brown lace Neuroptera: Hemerobiidae Both the larvae and adults of the brown lacewing are natural predators that actively seek for, capture, and consume psylla in the mango orchard.

Kadam et al. 2017 [20] 5 Fruit Flies Parasitoid Diachasmimorpha longicaudata Ashmead

Hymenoptera: Braconidae

It is a larval-prepupal endoparasitoid that kills its host by laying its eggs inside fruit fly larvae.

Montoya et al.

2000 [26] ; Wharton, 1989 [59] ; Eben et al.

Parasitoid

Goniozus spp Hymenoptera: Bethylidae

As a larval ectoparasitoid, Goniozus sp. paralyzes the leaf webber caterpillar and deposits its eggs on its body. The growing wasp larvae feed externally on the host until it dies.

George and Abdurahman, 1985 [14] Larval parasitoids Hormius spp. Hymenoptera: Braconidae Parasitism Goniozus sp. lays eggs on or in leaf webber larvae, and the growing parasitoids kill the host.

Singh, 1993 [46] ; George & Abdurahman, 1985 [15] Parasitoids Tetrastichus spp. Hymenoptera: Eulophidae Parasitism Tetrastichus sp. lays eggs inside leaf webber larvae or pupae, and the resulting parasitoids develop within and kill the host.

Singh, 1993 [46] Parasitoids Pediobius bruchicida Hymenoptera: Eulophidae Parasitism Pediobius bruchicida lays eggs inside leaf webber larvae or pupae, where the developing parasitoids feed internally and kill the host.

Singh, 1993 [46] Conclusion Biological suppression plays a vital role in the sustainable management of major insect pests in mango ecosystems. Natural enemies such as predators, parasitoids and entomopathogens effectively reduce pest populations while minimizing environmental and health risks associated with chemical pesticides. The conservation and integration of these biological control agents within integrated pest management strategies can enhance long-term pest regulation. Strengthening research, farmer awareness and field-level implementation will further improve the effectiveness and adoption of biological control approaches in mango cultivation.

Acknowledgement

AcknowledgmentsThe authors express their sincere gratitude to Dr. Sajad Mohi-ud-din and Dr. Mudasir Gani for their insightful guidance, encouragement and valuable inputs during the preparation of this review. We also acknowledge the contributions of researchers whose studies on biological control in mango ecosystems made this work possible.

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