A comprehensive review on lac cultivation: Biology, management and future prospects

Introduction

The term "lac" originates from the Sanskrit word "laksha," meaning "one hundred thousand," which refers to the large number of insect larvae that densely cover the branches of host plants during the brood development phase (Sharma et al., 2020) [25] . In trade and industry, lac is a general term used for all types of natural resin secreted by tiny lac insects on specific host trees, predominantly found in India, Thailand, China, and Indonesia (Porte and Singh, 2022) [20] . In India, Kerria lacca (Kerr.) is the main species responsible for secreting natural resin. These insects flourish on the tender twigs of selected host plants such as Palash (Butea monosperma), Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana), Kusum (Schleichera oleosa), Flemingia semialata, Ficus spp., and others (Sharma et al., 2010) [26] . The life cycle of the lac insect consists of three stages-egg, nymph, and adult-and it takes about six months for the eggs to develop into adults. In India, two major strains of lac-Rangeeni and Kusmi-are commonly cultivated, distinguished by their preferred host plants, life cycle duration, and quality of the resin they produce (Kapur, 1962; Shah et al., 2015) [11,23] . Kusmi lac is regarded as the highest-quality commercial lac, fetching premium prices both in domestic and international markets (Lalita, 2020) [17] . Processing of raw lac yields three important products: resin, dye, and wax. Lac resin has diverse industrial applications, including its use in varnishes, paints, inks, adhesives, food industries, cosmetics, leather finishing, electrical components, and pharmaceuticals (Maibangsa et al., 2023; Anjana et al., 2023) [18] . Lac wax is widely used in shoe polish, bottle sealing, tailor's chalk, crayons, lipsticks, and edible fruit coatings (Sharma and Ramani, 2014; Sharma et al., 2022) [24] . Owing to their natural and eco-friendly properties, these products have significant global demand. Agroforestry is a comprehensive term encompassing landuse systems where woody perennials like trees, shrubs, and bamboos are cultivated alongside herbaceous plants such as crops, pasture, and/or livestock. India produced about 18,944 tonnes of lac during 2019-20, and exported 7,293.47 tonnes in various forms, earning foreign exchange worth ₹405.51 crores (Yogi et al., 2021).

Nearly 3-4 million tribal and forest-dependent people earn supplementary income from lac cultivation, making it an important livelihood activity for economically vulnerable communities (Kumar and Reddy, 2024; Ranjan et al., 2018) [16, 21] . Besides supporting rural livelihoods, lac cultivation also contributes to the conservation of host trees, lac insects, and associated biodiversity. The establishment of plantations, recognizing the current need for sustainable alternatives for depleting natural forests, has gained significance for industrial and domestic wood production on both large and small scales (Bargah et al., 2025) [4] . India is the world's largest supplier of non-wood forest product (NWFP)-based raw materials used in the food, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, paint, and varnish industries. The country possesses around 621.4 million potential lac host trees, yet only about 5% of this resource is currently exploited for lac production. Utilizing this vast potential through recommended technologies can reduce migration, generate local employment, and improve the socioeconomic conditions of tribal farmers (Gupta et al., 2018) [5] 27] . Schleichera oleosa, Ziziphus mauritiana, and Butea monosperma are the major lac host species (Kumar et al., 2017) [13] . S. oleosa is most suitable for Kusmi lac, while B. monosperma supports high-quality Rangeeni lac production. Z. mauritiana is suitable for both strains, but only during specific seasons. These host plants are exploited for producing valuable industrial products such as resin, dye, and wax (Mohansundaram et al., 2022). Each lac strain produces two crops annually. For Rangeeni lac, the summer crop begins in October-November and matures by June-July, while the short rainy-season crop starts in June-July and matures by October-November; the commercial "ari" crop is harvested in May-June. For Kusmi lac, the summer crop starts in January-February and matures by June-July, while the winter crop begins in June-July and matures by January-February. Numerous studies in recent decades have examined lac production trends. Productivity estimations have also been conducted using correlation and regression analyses (Jaiswal & Saha, 1993) [22] . More recently, crop-and district-wise growth analyses of lac production were carried out for Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, and Chhattisgarh during the XI and XII five-year plan periods. These evaluations are crucial for identifying high-performing districts and formulating strategies to enhance livelihood opportunities through increased lac production. Almost all the scale insects are harmful as they suck the sap from the plants. Few of them are also beneficial and Lacinsect is one among them. Lac is a resinous protective secretion from of the lac insect. This secretion has great commercial value. So, lac insects are cultivated and lac is collected from the host plants. Hence, Lac culture is the commercial production of lac which includes regular pruning of the host plants, propagation of lac insects and the processing of the lac. Lac is the gift of nature to mankind and is the only known commercial resin of animal origin. It is the hardened resin secreted by tiny lac insects belonging to a bug family. To produce 1 kg of Lac resin, around 300,000 insects lose their life. The lac insects yields resin, lac dye and lac wax. Application of these products has been updating with time. Lac still finds extensive use in Ayurveda and Siddha systems of medicine. Lac has the unique properties of being eco-friendly, biodegradable and self-sustainable. Moreover it is a natural material and thus currently it has assumed special importance. Since lac insects are cultured on host trees which are growing primarily in wasteland areas, promotion of lac and its culture can help in eco-system development with reasonably high economic returns. It also acts as a source of livelihood for tribal and poor sub-forest areas.

History of lac

The use of lac in India dates back to the Vedic era, with its earliest mention appearing in the Atharva Veda. The term "lac" is believed to have originated from the Sanskrit word "laksha," meaning one hundred thousand, referring to the huge number of insects that cluster on the tender shoots of their host plants. The famous Indian epic Mahabharata also describes the "Laksha Griha," a highly inflammable palace made of lac, built by the Kauravas in an attempt to kill the Pandavas. Historical records suggest that ancient Greek and Roman civilizations were also aware of lac and its uses.

Other given names

The lac insect was first studied in 1709 by Father Tuchard. In 1782, Kerr named the species Coccus lacca. Later, Chatterjee referred to the lac insect as Tachardia lacca or Kerria lacca. Eventually, the name Laccifera lacca came into use. Among the six known genera of lac insects, five are capable of secreting lac, but only one-Laccifer-produces lac in quantities sufficient for commercial recovery. The most common and widely distributed species in India is Laccifer lacca (Kerr), which contributes the majority of the commercial lac produced in the country.

Distribution in india and abroad

Until around 1950, India enjoyed a near-monopoly in the global lac market, producing nearly 85% of the world's sticklac. After 1950, Thailand emerged as a major competitor. Other countries that produce lac include regions in Africa, Australia, Brazil, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, China, France, Japan, and West Germany. In India, the principal lac-producing regions include Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Hyderabad, Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Chennai, Coimbatore, Mysore, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. More than 90% of India's lac production comes from Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, eastern Maharashtra, and northern Odisha. Additionally, smaller pockets of lac cultivation can be found in Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Mysore, Gujarat, and in the Mirzapur and Sonebhadra districts of Uttar Pradesh.

Lac Culture in India

Lac resin is a natural, biodegradable, and non-toxic substance, making it suitable for use in food, textile, pharmaceutical and other industries. With the growing global preference for eco-friendly and safe materials for human use and consumption, the demand for lac has increased significantly. Lac cultivation also serves as an important source of income for tribal and economically weaker communities living in forest and sub-forest regions of India. Until about 1950, India enjoyed an almost complete monopoly in global lac production, contributing nearly 85% of the world's sticklac. At present, India's share has declined to around 50-60%. After 1950, Thailand emerged as India's major competitor, and several other countriesincluding those in Africa, Australia, Brazil, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, China, France, Japan, and West Germany-also produce lac. Despite this decline, India continues to have vast potential for lac culture. The regions suitable for lac cultivation can be divided into three categories: [27] . 54.60% of total production in the country comes from the state Jharkhand alone, which rightfully makes it the 'Lac state of India' (Government of Jharkhand, 2024; Kumar, 2018) [16] . This is followed by Chhattisgarh (17%), Madhya Pradesh (12%), Maharashtra (8%), and Odisha (3%), respectively. Ranchi, Palamau, Garhwa, Gumla, Simdega, Lohardaga, East and West Singhbhum are the main lac producing districts in Jharkhand (Kerketta, 2023) [12] . However, majority of these resources remain underutilised due to insufficient awareness, with just 5% of S. oleosa and Z. mauritiana and 1% of B. monosperma plants being employed for the production of lac.

Life cycle and biology of kerria spp. (lac insect) Morphology

The lac insect is hemimetabolous, meaning it undergoes gradual metamorphosis. It has three life stages: egg, nymph (young one), and adult. Nymphs resemble adults in structure except for their smaller size and undeveloped reproductive organs. Adult males and females differ significantly; the female is almost three times larger than the male. Male Male lac insects are pinkish-red and may be winged or wingless. The winged type has one pair of thin, transparent forewings. They mostly appear during the dry season (Baisakhi and Jethwai) and survive only 3-4 days, dying soon after mating. Their main features include: 1. A large head with prominent but non-functional mouthparts. 2. Two pairs of ocelli and a seven-segmented, hairy antenna. 3. Three-segmented tarsi.

4. An eight-segmented abdomen, broad in front and narrow at the end. 5. The last abdominal segment carries a pointed penis.

Female

Female lac insects are pink with a flat ventral side and a convex dorsal side. Their distinctive features include: 1. Highly reduced eyes, wings, and legs. 2. Small, vestigial antennae with 3-4 segments. 3. Piercing-sucking mouthparts; the rostrum has two segments. 4. A mesothoracic appendage bearing spiracles.

5. A rounded abdomen with a dorsal spine.

Biology

Lac insects live inside small cavities formed by the resin (lac) they secrete on their host plants. A female lays 200-500 eggs, all of which contain fully developed embryos, meaning the insect is ovoviviparous. They lay three types of eggs: 1. mostly producing males, 2. mostly producing females, 3. producing males and females in equal numbers.

Source: https://www.studyandscore.com/studymaterial-detail/lac-culture-introduction-history-distribution-lac-culture-in-India-and-life-cycle-of-lac-insect

Fertilization

Lac insects are ovoviviparous types. The females get attached to the host plant inside the resinous mass. The male insect comes out of its resinous mass by pushing the operculum of the anal opening and then walks over the resinous covering of the female. This walking fertilizes the female within. One male lac insect is capable of fertilizing many females.

Egg-laying

After the fertilization, the female grows rapidly until it begins to lay eggs. By the time female starts to lay the eggs, its body contracts on the ventral side and gradually vacating the place for the eggs to be accommodated inside the resin cell. After laying the eggs the female secrets the lac resin at a faster rate. After about 14 weeks, female completes shrinks in size allowing the light to pass into the cell and onto the eggs. At this stage, two yellow spots appear at the rear end of the resin cell. These spots gradually enlarge and turn orange in color. This indicates the completion of egg-laying by the female lac insect. After laying the eggs the female lac insect dies. Now the resin cell with eggs is called as ovisac. The ovisac appears orange in color due to the crimson fluid called the lac dye. This indicates that eggs are about to hatch in a week.

Egg hatching

After six weeks, the eggs are hatched into first instar larvae called crawlers. These larvae emerge our in very huge numbers and this emergence is termed as swarming. The first instar larva is broad, red-coloured and boat-shaped. It has paired antennae, ocelli and sucking type of mouth parts with proboscis. These larvae prefer succulent shoots as their host. The settled larvae suck the sap from the host and start to secrete resinous substance all over their body.

Pupa

As the resinous secretions come in contact with the air, it becomes hard and forms a coating over the body of the larva and now this covering is called cell. Within the cell various life processes like the growth of larva and morphological changes takes place. Inside the cell, the larvae undergo three moults. After the first moult, both the female and male nymphs lose their appendages, eye and become degenerate. The female once inside the cell will never move on the other hand the male comes out through the operculum of the anal opening.

Adult

After about 6-8 weeks the stationary life of larva metamorphoses into adults having cast-off the second and the third moults. Only the male undergoes complete metamorphosis, it loses its proboscis, develops antennae, legs and a pair of wings. The females undergo incomplete metamorphosis. They retain her mouth parts but fail to develop any wings, eyes or appendages. Female becomes an immobile organism with little resemblance to an insect. They become little more than egg producing organisms. The sex can be determined even during the early stages of development. As in case of males the growth is more on the longitudinal axis and in females the growth is more in vertical axis. The life span of the female is longer than that of the males. Most of the lac is secreted by the females. The life cycle occurs twice in one year on the same plant. The eggs hatch within a few hours, releasing tiny crimsonred first-instar nymphs, called crawlers. These nymphs have two compound eyes, three pairs of legs, a pair of antennae, and six anal setae. Their mass emergence is known as swarming, which may continue for five weeks or more. The crawlers move over branches until they find suitable twigs-neither too soft nor too hard-and settle in dense clusters of 200-300 insects per inch. They insert their needle-like proboscis into the bark to feed on sap. Within a day of settling, the nymphs start secreting semi-solid resin from glands beneath their cuticle (except near the mouth, breathing pores, and anus). This resin hardens on exposure to air, forming the protective lac covering. Inside their cells, nymphs undergo three moults, the duration of each depending on temperature, humidity, and host plant. After the first moult, both male and female nymphs lose their legs, antennae, and eyes, which become reduced; however, the anal setae increase to ten. The male cell becomes slipper-shaped with a rear operculum, whereas the female cell becomes globular. During the second moulting stage, male nymphs pass through prepupal and pupal phases and regenerate their appendages, while females remain degenerate but continue feeding, growing, and secreting resin. After the third moult, adult males emerge-winged or wingless. They reach maturity much faster than females and cannot feed because their mouthparts are atrophied. They mate with as many females as possible and die shortly afterward. Females remain inside their cells, grow rapidly, and deposit most of the lac. As they mature, they become globular and fill the entire cell. Before laying eggs, they shrink to create space for the ovisac, where eggs are deposited. Two yellow spots appear at the cell's rear end, turning orange when the ovisac is full and the eggs are close to hatching (within a week). At this stage, the brood lac sticks are cut and used for inoculating new host trees. [4] , https://www.cgmfpfed.org/new/lac_cultivation.php

Host tree and strain

Swarn-Jayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY)

Under SGSY scheme for the beneficiaries living below poverty line 26

Conclusion

Lac cultivation in Chhattisgarh is a vital forest-based livelihood supporting thousands of rural households and contributing significantly to India's lac production. The state's abundant host trees-Kusum, Palash, and Bercombined with scientific cultivation practices, training programs, and local processing units, have enhanced productivity and income generation. With India's lac industry still utilizing only a fraction of its potential host trees, there is substantial scope for expansion. Strengthening scientific methods, improving processing efficiency, and promoting sustainable management can further boost lac yields, provide additional rural employment, and enhance the economic and ecological value of forest resources in Chhattisgarh.

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