Effect of nitrogen and hydrogel levels on soil moisture, relative water and consumptive use of Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)

A field experiment was conducted during the Rabi seasons of 2021-22 and 2022-23 at Agricultural Research Farm, Department of Agronomy, Raja Balwant Singh College, Bichpuri (Agra). The variables involved in this study were Irrigation scheduling (Main plot) viz., control (No irrigation, I0), Active tillering at 30-35 DAS (I1) and Active tillering at 30-35 DAS, flag leaf at 60-65 DAS and milking at 80-85 DAS (I2) along with Nitrogen levels (Sub plot) viz., 75% RDN (45 kg N )+ 30 kg P2O5 + 20 kg K2O) (N1) and 100% RDN (60 kg N) + 30 kg P2O5 + 20 kg K2O) (N2); C. Hydrogel levels (Sub-sub plot) viz., control (No hydrogel, H0), Pusa Hydrogel @ 2.5 kg ha-1 (H1), Pusa Hydrogel @ 5.0 kg ha-1 (H2) and Pusa Hydrogel @ 7.5 kg ha-1 (H3). Thus, all factors were compared in a split plot design with three replications. Results revealed that the application of Pusa Hydrogel @ 7.5 kg ha⁻¹ (H₃) significantly enhanced water-related parameters of barley crop. The treatment recorded the highest soil moisture content (20.85–20.88%), soil moisture extraction (13.60–13.64%), water use efficiency (16.21–16.26 kg ha⁻¹ mm), consumptive use of water (30.12–30.18 cm), and relative water content (73.80–73.98%), while the lowest values for all these parameters were observed under the control (no hydrogel).

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Introduction

Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) is widely grown across a range of environments as a rainfed or irrigated crop. (Singh et al. 2024) [11] . It is grown with levels care and less manurial requirement. (Singh et al., 2022) [4] . Globally 70% of barley production is used as animal fodder, while 30% as a source of fermentable material for beer and certain distilled beverages and as a component of various foods. It is used in soups and stews and in barley bread of various cultures, barley grains are commonly made into malt in all traditional and ancient method of preparation. (Singhal, et al., 2023) [1] . Barley has a long history of cultivation and is recognized as one of the oldest cultivated grains. (Singh et al., 2023) [1] . The limited availability of water resources in arid and semi-arid regions poses a significant challenge to sustainable agriculture, with drought stress projected to cause up to a 30% reduction in global crop production by 2025. (Singh et al., 2024) [11] . Hydrogel are water-absorbing polymers that swell many times their size and act as water retention granules in agriculture. They improve soil water-holding capacity, enhance soil properties, and increase irrigation efficiency, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. (Gupta et al., 2025) [2] . Agricultural hydrogels are referred to as water retention granules because they swell to many times their original size when they come in contact with water. It has been widely proposed over the last 40 years for agricultural use with the aim to ameliorate water availability forplants, by increasing water holding properties of growing media. (Gupta et al., 2025) [2] . Fertilizer N management strategies need to be formulated to address the challenges of increasing agricultural productivity and improving sustainability. Split applications of nitrogen at different crop development stages. (Singh et al., 2023) [1] . Use of higher level of fertilizers, irrigation and sometimes reverting to older cultivars for specific needs and increase in the mechanized harvesting may lead to further losses due to lodging. (Archna, et al., 2023) [1] .

Materials and Methods

The field experiment was carried out during rabi season of 2021-22 and 2022-23 at Agricultural Research Farm, Department of Agronomy, R.B.S. College, Bichpuri, Agra (U.P.). The research farm is situated at about 11 km to the west of Agra on Agra-Bharatpur Road at latitude of 27º 02' N and longitude of 77º 09' E with an elevation of 163.4 m above the mean sea level. This region falls under southwestern semi-arid zone of Uttar Pradesh. A "Split plot Design" with three irrigation scheduling (main plot), Two levels of nitrogen (sub plot) and four levels of hydrogel (sub-sub plot) replicated three times was adopted. Barley variety BH-946 is a high yielding six rows feed barley variety developed by CCSHAU, Hisar for cultivation under timely sown, irrigated conditions of Uttar Pradesh. Seed was treated with Agrosan GN @ 2g kg -1 seed. The sowing was done in furrows 6 cm depth at a distance of 18 cm. Apart, the seed rate of 100 kg ha -1 . Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium fertilizers were administered as urea, DAP, and muriate of potash at the rates of 150, 60, and 40 kg/ha, respectively. The entire amount of phosphorus and potassium, along with half of the nitrogen, was applied during sowing, while the remaining nitrogen was added after the first irrigation. Pusa hydrogel is an indigenous product designed and developed by IARI, New Delhi to enhance the crop productivity per unit available water and nutrients, particularly in moisture stress agriculture.

Results and Discussion

Results and Discussion

Water use studies

The data regarding to the water use studies viz., soil moisture content at 0-30 cm soil depth (At sowing, before irrigation, after irrigation and at harvest), soil moisture extraction pattern 0-30 cm depth, water use efficiency (kg ha -1 mm), consumptive use of water (cm) and relative water content (%) are presented in tables from 1 and 2 and depicted in figures from 4.8 (a) to 4.8 (b), respectively. It is evident from the data that all the water use studies of the crop were influenced due to irrigation scheduling, nitrogen levels and hydrogel levels during both the year of experimentation.

Soil moisture content at 0-30 cm soil depth (At sowing, before irrigation, after irrigation and at harvest): Effect of Irrigation Scheduling on Soil Moisture Content

Irrigation scheduling significantly influenced soil moisture content at all crop growth stages (Table 1). The pooled data indicated that the highest soil moisture content was recorded under treatment I₂ (irrigation at active tillering, flag leaf, and milking stages), with values of 6.17%, 15.25%, 26.16%, and 20.83% at sowing, before irrigation, after irrigation, and at harvest, respectively. The treatment I₁ (irrigation at active tillering only) recorded intermediate moisture levels, while the control (I₀), which received no irrigation, maintained the lowest moisture throughout the growth period. The enhanced soil moisture under I₂ may be attributed to timely irrigation at critical stages, which maintained favorable water balance and reduced soil moisture depletion. Similar trends were reported by Kumar et al. (2025) and Gupta et al. (2025) [5,2] , who observed that multiple irrigations at key phenological stages enhanced soil moisture storage and improved crop growth.

Treatments	Soil moisture content at 0-30 cm soil depth (%)	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
	Notations		At sowing			Before irrigation			After irrigation			At harvest
			2021- 22	2022- 23	Pool ed	2021- 22	2022- 23	Pool ed	2021- 22	2022- 23	Pool ed	2021- 22	2022- 23	Pool ed
A. Main plot: Irrigation scheduling - 03
Control (No irrigation )		I0	5.33	5.39	5.36	12.12	12.22	12.1 7	20.74	20.81	20.7 7	19.12	19.19	19.1 5
Active tillering at 30-35 DAS		I1	5.82	5.85	5.83	14.81	14.89	14.8 5	25.5	25.6	25.5 5	20	20.21	20.2
Active tillering at 30-35 DAS, flag leaf at 60-65 DAS and milking at 80-85 DAS		I2	6.16	6.18	6.17	15.2	15.29	15.2 5	26.1	26.23	26.1 6	20.8	20.86	20.8 3
SE(m)±			0.12	0.13	0.13	0.14	0.14	0.14	0.17	0.2	0.18	0.21	0.23	0.22
C.D. (P = 0.05)			0.35	0.4	0.38	0.41	43	0.42	0.52	0.58	0.55	0.61	0.64	0.62
B. Sub plot: Nitrogen levels – 02
75% RDN (45 kg N) + 30 kg P2O5 + 20 kg K2O)		N1	5.8	5.87	5.83	15.1	15.13	15.1 2	25.61	25.76	25.6 9	20.12	20.19	20.1 5
100% RDN (60 kg N)+ 30 kg P2O5 + 20 kg K2O)		N2	6.17	6.19	6.18	15.46	15.51	15.4 9	26.22	26.43	26.3 3	20.74	20.81	20.7 7
SE(m)±			0.14	0.16	0.15	0.11	0.12	0.12	0.21	0.22	0.22	0.2	0.21	0.2
C.D. (P = 0.05)			0.44	0.49	0.46	0.34	0.37	0.35	0.6	0.66	0.63	0.58	0.59	0.58
C. Sub-sub plot: Hydrogel levels – 04
Control (No Hydrogel)		H0	4.7	4.81	4.75	14.3	14.32	14.3 1	24.14	24.22	24.1 8	19.14	19.18	19.1 6
Pusa Hydrogel @ 2.5 Kg ha-1		H1	5.3	5.4	5.35	14.81	14.83	14.8 2	25.42	25.49	24.4 5	20.06	20.1	20.0 8
Pusa Hydrogel @ 5.0 Kg ha-1		H2	5.9	5.93	5.91	15.34	15.39	15.3	26.31	26.36	26.3	20.35	20.42	20.3

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Water use studies of barley as influenced by Irrigation scheduling, Nitrogen levels and hydrogel levels of crop growth

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Effect of Nitrogen Levels on Soil Moisture

Nitrogen application exhibited a positive effect on soil moisture retention. The pooled results showed that 100% RDN (N₂) resulted in higher soil moisture (6.18%, 15.49%, 26.33%, and 20.77%) compared with 75% RDN (N₁). This improvement could be ascribed to increased root proliferation and canopy development under higher nitrogen supply, which enhanced water uptake and reduced surface evaporation. These findings corroborate the results of Gupta, et al. (2025) and Rathor, et al. (2025) [2] , who noted that adequate nitrogen fertilization improves the soil-plantwater relationship through better vegetative growth and higher transpiration efficiency. [5,2] , who found that hydrogel application improved soil moisture retention and water use efficiency in cereals grown under limited irrigation. [5,15] , who reported that multiple irrigations improve plant water status and optimize water use efficiency in cereals under semi-arid conditions.

Effect of Irrigation

Effect of Irrigation

Effect of Nitrogen Levels on Water Use Efficiency and Moisture Parameters

Nitrogen fertilization significantly affected all water use parameters. The pooled data indicated that 100% RDN (N₂) maintained higher soil moisture extraction (13.61%), water use efficiency (16.23 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹), consumptive use (29.96 cm), and relative water content (74.25%) compared with 75% RDN (N₁). The improvement in water use efficiency and relative water content with higher nitrogen supply could be attributed to better canopy development, enhanced photosynthetic activity, and improved root growth, leading to greater water uptake and reduced losses through evaporation. Similar observations were made by Islamuddeen et al. (2022) and Verma et al. (2025) [4,15] , who reported that adequate nitrogen fertilization improves plant water relations by maintaining higher leaf water potential and stomatal conductance.

Effect of Hydrogel Application on Water Use and Moisture Retention

Hydrogel application significantly improved soil moisture extraction, water use efficiency, consumptive use, and relative water content. Among the treatments, H₃ (Pusa Hydrogel @ 7.5 kg ha⁻¹) recorded the highest pooled soil moisture extraction (13.62%), water use efficiency (16.24 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹), consumptive use (30.15 cm), and relative water content (73.89%), followed by H₂ (5.0 kg ha⁻¹). The lowest values were observed in the control (H₀). The improvement in water-related parameters with increasing hydrogel levels is attributed to the superior water absorption and retention properties of hydrogel, which enhance soil water availability during crop growth and minimize drought stress. These findings agree with those of Gupta, et al.

(2025) and Gupta, et al. (2025) [2,3] , who demonstrated that hydrogels act as soil conditioners, increasing water-holding capacity and improving crop water use efficiency under limited moisture conditions.

Conclusion

The results concluded that irrigation scheduling, nitrogen levels, and hydrogel application significantly influenced soil moisture dynamics, water use efficiency, and relative water content in barley. The treatment with three irrigations at critical growth stages, along with 100% RDN and Pusa Hydrogel @ 7.5 kg ha⁻¹, consistently recorded the highest values for all water-related parameters. This combination effectively enhanced soil moisture retention and crop water use efficiency. The integration of proper irrigation, nutrient management, and hydrogel application proved most efficient for sustaining barley productivity under limited moisture conditions.

Figures and tables from the paper

Treatments	Water use studies	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
	Soil moisture extraction pattern 0-30 cm depth (%)						Water use efficiency (kg ha-1 mm)						Consumptive use of water (cm)						Relative water content (%)
	2021-22		2022-23		Pooled		2021 -22		2022 -23		Poo led		2021- 22		2022- 23		Poole d		2021- 22		2022- 23		Pooled
A. Main plot: Irrigation scheduling - 03
Control (No irrigation )	I0	10.9		10.94		10.92		13.2 1		13.3		13.2 6		28.24		28.37		28.3		63.41		63.54		63.48
Active tillering at 30-35 DAS	I1	12.14		12.17		12.15		14.7		14.7 5		14.7 2		29.61		29.66		29.63		70.2		70.42		70.31
Active tillering at 30-35 DAS, flag leaf at 60-65 DAS and milking at 80-85 DAS	I2	13.56		13.63		13.59		16.2		16.2 6		16.2 3		30.27		30.39		30.33		75.48		75.56		75.52
SE(m)±		0.2		0.22		0.21		0.27		0.29		0.28		0.22		0.26		0.23		1.62		1.65		1.63
C.D. (P = 0.05)		0.61		0.65		0.63		0.81		0.84		0.82		0.64		0.68		0.66		4.81		4.93		4.87
B. Sub plot: Nitrogen levels – 02
75% RDN (45 kg N + 30 kg P2O5 + 20 kg K2O)	N1	12.95		12.97		12.96		15.2		15.2 7		15.2 3		29.03		29.2		29.11		70.2		70.42		70.31
100% RDN (60 kg N + 30 kg P2O5 + 20 kg K2O)	N2	13.58		13.63		13.61		16.1 8		16.2 8		16.2 3		29.92		29.99		29.96		74.18		74.32		74.25
SE(m)±		0.19		0.2		0.19		0.29		0.3		0.29		0.22		0.23		0.23		1.1		1.14		1.12

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1. Archna K, Singh V, Kumar H, Singh R. Optimization of NPK fertilization in conjunction with plant growth regulators affecting productivity and profitability of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). J Rural Agric Res. 2023;23(2):56-60.
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