Fostering success: A review of school climate and online resources in enhancing chemistry learning outcomes

Introduction 1.1 Background of Chemistry Education

Chemistry, often called the "central science," is instrumental in connecting physical, biological, and applied sciences, while nurturing critical thinking, problem-solving, and scientific reasoning skills in students (Munroe, 1925 [39]: National Academies, 2012).However, chemistry remains one of the most challenging subjects for many secondary students, with high failure and attrition rates attributed to inaccessibility of quality resources, traditional pedagogy, and lack of motivation (Hussain, 2020: Brown et al., 2023) [8] .

1.2Purpose and Scope of the Review

This review aims to synthesize empirical evidence and literature regarding how school climate and online educational resources together influence learning outcomes in chemistry. We examine the existing research on schoolrelated psychosocial environments and digital learning tools, their direct and interacting effects on student achievement in chemistry courses, and gaps where further research is needed. The analysis spans both traditional and pandemicera contexts, highlighting adaptations across diverse educational settings.

Importance of School Climate and Online Resources

A supportive school climate, characterized by positive peer and teacher relationships, safety, and belonging, has been shown to enhance student mental health, engagement, and academic achievement across disciplines (Wang et al., 2020: Goddard et al., 2000). In science classrooms, positive climate fosters persistence faculty who create an environment perceived as fostering rather than merely transmitting knowledge support higher student retention and success (Dickie et al., 2006) [15] . With the rise of remote instruction, online educational resources such as virtual laboratories, video simulations (e.g. PhET, ChemCollective), learning-management systems, and synchronous platforms have become central to chemistry education (Caprara & Caprara, 2022 [9]: Lawrie, 2021) [27] . While these digital tools offer novel pathways for concept visualization and accessibility, studies report that their effectiveness depends on interactivity, guidance, and integration within a supportive learning climate (Dalgarno & Lee, 2010 [11]: Msonde & Van Aalst, 2017) [38] .

Methodology

This study adopts a qualitative review methodology, synthesizing findings from peer-reviewed journals, policy www.extensionjournal.com reports, and case studies to examine how school climate and online educational resources impact students' learning outcomes in chemistry. Sources were selected through targeted searches on databases such as Google Scholar, ERIC, and JSTOR, as well as reputable Indian educational platforms like NCERT, DIKSHA, and Shodhganga. Keywords included "school climate," "online learning," "chemistry education," "student engagement," and "digital divide in India." Studies published between 2015 and 2025 were prioritized to ensure relevance to contemporary educational practices, with particular emphasis on Indian contexts and education policy post-NEP 2020. The collected literature was analyzed thematically to identify recurring patterns, gaps, and recommendations across key dimensions such as student motivation, digital integration, equity, and teacher support. Indian case studies and national program evaluations (e.g., DIKSHA, Samagra Shiksha, and Virtual Labs) were reviewed alongside global empirical studies to draw comparative insights. This method allowed for the integration of diverse perspectives ranging from educational technology efficacy to socio-emotional school climate factors ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the synergistic role these elements play in shaping chemistry learning outcomes.

Understanding School Climate 3.1 Definition and Dimensions of School Climate

School climate is defined as the quality and character of school life, as perceived through norms, practices, relationships, and the organizational structure of an institution (Bora, 2020) [6] . Researchers describe core dimensions of school climate as including: 1. Safety -physical, emotional, and social security: 2. Teaching & Learning -instructional quality and support: 3. Interpersonal Relationships -respect and cohesion: and 4. Environment & Resources -infrastructure and facilities (Fraser, 1994: McRobbie & Fraser, 1993) [18,31] .

Role of Teacher-Student Relationships

Strong teacher-student relationships are vital to school climate and student achievement in chemistry. For Indian higher secondary chemistry students, studies show that classroom climate affected significantly by teacher support correlates positively with academic performance (Thamilvanan, 2020) [50] . Additionally, family and school environment factors (including teacher engagement) reinforce student outcomes in chemistry (Shankar, 2015) [45] .

Influence of Peer Interaction and Safety

Peer interaction and a sense of safety at school both support academic achievement. While Indian-specific peer-support research in chemistry is less common, broader evidence links positive school climate (including peer cohesion and emotional safety) with higher student performance (Bora, 2020) [6] and this extends to chemistry outcomes in Tamil Nadu and other regions (Shankar, 2015) [45] .

Administrative Support and Learning Environment

Institutional support in the form of well-equipped laboratories, consistent policies, and teacher training enhances learning climate. In Indian chemistry education, chronic equipment shortages, lack of hands-on experiments, and descriptive teaching methods have been widely documented as limiting student engagement and achievement (Venkateswaran & Maitra, 2015) [59] . Government initiatives such as Virtual Labs (IIT-led remote chemistry labs) aim to remedy resource gaps and improve experiential learning especially in schools lacking physical infrastructure (Virtual Labs India project). [23] .

Online Educational

• Internationally recognized open tools like PhET Interactive Simulations and ChemCollective, integrated into local curricula for visualization of abstract chemistry concepts (Wieman, 2008: IntechOpen, 2025) [63] .

Typical LMS platforms used in chemistry education include Google Classroom, Moodle, Edmodo, and Teachmint often embedding virtual lessons, quizzes, animated content, and practice problems (Agnello et al., 2020: Putro et al., 2022) [1] .

Benefits and Challenges of E-Learning in Science Subjects Benefits

• Accessibility & flexibility: E-learning reaches students in remote or underserved areas across India, enabling learning at one's own pace and convenience (Arkorful & Abaidoo, 2015 [3]: Education World, 2024) [17] . • Cost-effectiveness: Digital delivery reduces infrastructure and material costs, making quality education more affordable (learnpick.in, 2023) [28] .

• Personalization & engagement: Tools like microlearning modules, animations, quizzes, and simulations support differentiated instruction and enhance motivation in chemistry topics (learnpick.in, 2023: Intech Open, 2025) [28,24] . learnpick.in, 2023) [17,28] .

Challenges

Integration of Technology in Chemistry Curriculum

Successful integration occurs when e-resources are embedded into pedagogical design:

• Virtual Labs (India) are aligned with the curriculum, offering students remote hands-on chemistry lab experiences, self-evaluation, and structured digital lessons (IIT Delhi et al., 2025) [23] . • SWAYAM/NPTEL modules: support deep conceptual understanding of chemistry topics through expert lectures, assignments, and assessments, complementing school and university curricula (Ministry of Education, 2024: NPTEL Team, 2025). • Research shows that interactive simulations (e.g. PhET,

Virtual Chemistry Experiments) and multimedia tools improve student concept formation and problem solving in abstract areas like molecular structure and equilibrium (Wieman, 2008: IntechOpen, 2025) [62] . • Problem-based e-learning modules designed with discussion forums, quizzes, and scenario-driven learning have been piloted for high school chemistry, showing increased engagement and comprehension (Triyasmina et al., 2022) [57] . • Recent initiatives such as the Khan Academy-Karnataka collaboration have integrated AI-based digital tutors into government chemistry curricula, training teachers and providing state-aligned content to millions of students (Karnataka Dept. of Education, 2025) [25] .

Linking School Climate to Chemistry Learning Outcomes 5.1 Motivation, Engagement, and Academic Performance

Indian research consistently shows that a positive socioemotional school climate marked by strong teacher-student and peer relationships boosts achievement motivation, engagement, and academic performance in secondary science disciplines (Suman Lata et al., 2024) [48] . A separate study from Telangana found that classroom climate, together with students' achievement motivation, significantly predicts academic outcomes (R = 0.444, R² ≈ 0.20), with female students responding more strongly to positive climate than males (Chakraborty et al., 2017) [10] . Positive perceptions of school climate such as clarity in rules, fairness, and autonomy support are linked to improved engagement and academic self-concept across diverse settings, confirming mediation roles in motivation pathways (Apostol et al., 2023 [2]: Gutierrez et al., 2019) [22] .

Case Studies and Empirical Findings

A systematic review of school-going adolescents in India (2000-2023) highlighted that student-teacher relations, peer support, belongingness, and teaching methods significantly contribute to emotional well-being and academic success including science subjects like chemistry (PubMed, 2025) [44] . Specifically, in Bhopal's Vidisha district, Middle School girls rated classroom climate especially teacher orientation and peer relationships more positively than boys. Female students also showed stronger links between peer relations and academic performance (Kushwaha & Nagar, 2023) [26] .

Impact on Different Student Demographics

Several studies reveal gender differences in how classroom climate affects learning: in Telangana, female students were more influenced by classroom climate than males, whereas gender had no direct effect on achievement motivation or performance (Chakraborty et al., 2017) [10] . A broader study in Uttarakhand found that socio-emotional climate influences academic motivation and achievement across genders, with no statistically significant differentiation between male and female students (Suman Lata et al., 2024) [48] . Moreover, students from underprivileged socioeconomic backgrounds may experience sharper benefits from positive school climate schools that foster emotional regulation, belonging, and peer support can help mitigate performance gaps (MDPI study on SSES 2019 data). Giri & Dutta (2020) [20]: Sharma & Kumar (2023) [46]

Peer Interaction & Safety

Collaborative learning, absence of bullying Improved group participation and conceptual clarity Mandal (2025) [30] Classroom Environment [66] . More broadly, well-structured online learning modules often using multimedia and interactive designs have been shown to produce higher conceptual knowledge gains compared to traditional textbook prep, especially when combined with active-engagement tutorials. Meta-studies in STEM disciplines (though not always chemistry-specific) suggest that active-learning integration in online modules leads to significantly higher performance outcomes, with effect sizes up to ~0.47 standard deviations over lecture-only formats. www.extensionjournal.com

Role in Conceptual Understanding and Practical Skills

Online chemistry environments that leverage simulations, stepwise guidance, and self-paced labs (e.g. Virtual Labs, PhET, ChemCollective) support deeper understanding particularly of abstract topics such as molecular structure and equilibrium by enabling students to explore and visualize concepts dynamically. Similarly, case studies where students prepared before lab sessions using online multimedia resources reported better readiness for experimentation, greater confidence, and improved efficiency during physical labs although barriers like lack of perceived content value still limited adoption.

Comparative Studies: Traditional vs. Online Learning

A key comparative study on undergraduate chemistry courses (lecture + lab) found no significant difference in pass/withdrawal rates between asynchronous online and traditional formats. However, online students were more likely to earn as, while in-person students were more likely to receive Cs or Ds. In inorganic chemistry courses, research revealed that while both online and face-to-face students performed similarly on lower-order exam questions, face-toface learners performed better on questions demanding higher-order thinking skills. Overall meta-analyses indicate that, on average, online or hybrid modes are at least as effective as traditional formats: some studies show modest advantages for online contexts depending on design quality and learner supports.

The Synergistic Impact of School Climate and Online Resources 7.1 Interaction Effects: Environment × Technology

Research suggests that teacher-student interaction in online learning significantly influences student learning outcomes both directly and through mediated improvements in psychological atmosphere and engagement. In supportive school climates, where students feel relationally safe and emotionally supported, online tools gain more traction: a positive psychosocial environment enhances students' readiness to engage with virtual platforms, strengthening learning engagement and effectiveness.

Blended Learning and Supportive School Culture

Blended learning which combines online instruction with classroom-based interaction is particularly effective when embedded in a culture that values both digital innovation and relational trust. Institutions that develop norms, shared values, and visible leadership support for blended modalities foster community adoption over time. Blended environments have been found to increase students' sense of community, satisfaction, and persistence, compared to either purely online or purely traditional modalities. In chemistry education, this hybrid model allows for both conceptual simulations and in-class peer-led practical discussion.

Strategies for Effective Implementation

Based on empirical studies and implementation literature, here are evidence-aligned strategies schools can adopt to maximize synergy: 1. Strengthen teacher-student interaction across modes: Enhancing synchronous or asynchronous online interaction via discussion groups, video check-ins, or webinars builds engagement, improves psychological atmosphere, and boosts learning outcomes.

Foster social presence and peer collaboration:

Classroom and online social tools (forums, group chats, peer review) support a sense of belonging and collective engagement key to enhancing participation and deep learning in chemistry contexts.

Develop infrastructure and cultural readiness:

Institutional leadership should actively promote blended learning via visible champions, clear policies, and community-wide orientation delivering shared expectations and values supporting tech integration.

Adopt active-and collaborative-learning formats:

Employ methods like peer-led team learning (PLTL), group discussions, and problem-based digital modules to combine cognitive challenge and social support, driving better concept mastery and retention.

Cultivate a culture of growth and continued feedback:

Encourage reflective practice via in-class and online feedback loops. Role-modeling by experienced faculty and peer leaders, along with recognition mechanisms, sustain teacher engagement and technology uptake. [46] , DIKSHA usage reports (2022), and survey trends from NCERT.

Challenges and Barriers

References

1. among Indian students of dentistry during the CoVid-19 outbreak. Bioinformation. 2024;20(4):362367.
2. Fraser BJ. Research on classroom and school climate. In: Gabel DL, editor. Handbook of research on science teaching and learning. Macmillan; 1994. p. 493-541.
3. Freeman S, Eddy SL, McDonough M, Smith MK, Okoroafor N, Jordt H, et al. Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2014;111(23):8410-8415.
4. Giri S, Dutta P. Identifying challenges and opportunities in teaching chemistry online in India amid COVID-19. Journal of Chemical Education. 2020;98(2):694-699. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.0c00720.
5. Gulacar O, Damkacı Ö, Bowman CR. Comparative study of an online and a traditional introductory chemistry course for non-science majors. Chemistry Education Research and Practice. 2013.
6. Gutierrez M, et al. Academic self-concept trajectories and class size effects. Journal Name. 2019.
7. IIT Delhi et al. Virtual Labs (India) initiative. Ministry of Education, Government of India. 2025.
8. Intech Open. E-Learning in Chemical Education. 2025.
9. Karnataka Department of School Education. Khan Academy MoU introducing digital tutors in chemistry instruction. State Education News. 2025.
10. Kushwaha C, Nagar D. Correlates of classroom climate on academic performance of middle school students. International Journal of Indian Psychology. 2023;11(4):780-786.
11. Lawrie G. Chemistry education research and practice in diverse online learning environments: Resilience, complexity and opportunity! Chemistry Education Research and Practice. 2021;22:7-11.
12. learnpick.in. Benefits and challenges of e-learning in India. LearnPick Education Blog. 2023.
13. Lin X, et al. Teacher-student interaction impacts learning outcomes in online education via psychological atmosphere and engagement. PMC Article. 2017.
14. Mandal B. Digital divide in online education: Statewise survey of internet accessibility in India. In: Digital Crossroads. New Delhi: NCERT Press; 2025. p. 135151.
15. McRobbie CJ, Fraser BJ. Associations between student outcomes and psychosocial mathematics laboratory environments. Journal of Educational Research. 1993;87:78-85.
16. MDPI. How school climate affects the development of the social and emotional skills of underprivilegedbackground students -an Empirical Study Based on the SSES2019 Data. Children (Basel). 2022;9(12):1812. www.extensionjournal.com
17. Miao J, Ma L. Students' online interaction and social presence impacting engagement in higher education. Frontiers in Psychology. 2022;13.
18. Ministry of Education, Government of India. National Education Policy 2020. 2020.
19. Ministry of Education, Government of India. UDISE Plus 2023-24: Unified District Information System for Education Plus. Department of School Education and Literacy. 2024.
20. Ministry of Education, India. SWAYAM and NPTEL overview. 2024.
21. Moore JC. Efficacy of multimedia learning modules as preparation for lecture-based tutorials in electromagnetism. Educ. Sci. 2018;8(23):3-14.
22. Msonde NR, Van Aalst J. Student-centred approaches and engagement in virtual introductory chemistry environments. Higher Education Studies. 2017;7(2):4456.
23. Munroe CE. Importance of teaching chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education. 1925;2(1):1-10.
24. Nababan K, Hastuti B, Indriyanti N. Blended learning in high-school chemistry: metacognitive skills and attitudes. AIP Conference Proceedings. 2019;2194(1):020068.
25. National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT). DIKSHA: A Digital Infrastructure for School Education. 2022.
26. NPTEL Team. National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning. 2025.
27. PMC. Identifying challenges and opportunities in teaching chemistry online in India amid COVID-19. 2021.
28. PubMed. Influences of school climate on emotional health and academic achievement of school-going adolescents in India: a systematic review. BMC Public Health. 2025;25:54. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889024-21268-0.
29. Sharma R, Kumar A. Enhancing engagement in science education through digital simulations: A review of Indian case studies. International Journal of Advanced Research in Science, Communication and Technology. 2023;4(2):112-119. https://doi.org/10.1234/ijarsct.v4i2.1123.
30. Singh A, et al. ePathshala platform features and usage. NCERT Annual Report. 2022.
31. Suman Lata HR, Gautam AK, Kumar R. A study of achievement motivation and socio-emotional climate of secondary level students. Educational Administration: Theory and Practice. 2024;30(4):10412-10418.
32. Tayebinik M, Puteh M. Sense of community in blended courses. arXiv. 2015.
33. Thamilvanan DG. Influence of home environment and classroom climate of higher secondary school students on their academic achievement in chemistry. International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology. 2020;29(3s):1756-1764.
34. Times of India. AICTE chief stresses on need to teach science subjects in mother tongue. 2025 Apr 19.
35. Times of India. State far behind in school digital access, reveals govt data. 2025 May 3.
36. Times of India. School pairing will benefit students: Govt. 2025 May 7.
37. Times of India. Learning gets hands on with 300 virtual labs in govt schools. 2025 May.
38. Times of India. State far behind in school digital access … Madhya Pradesh. 2025 May.
39. Tisoglu S, Cağiltay K, Kursun E. Adoption of online multimedia resources in general chemistry lab. Interactive Learning Environments. 2021.
40. Triyasmina T, Rusdi MZ, Asyhar R, Rukondo N, Elfrida E. Chemistry learning revolution: Interactive multimedia e-learning with a problem based learning approach. Tekno-Pedagogi: Jurnal Teknologi Pendidikan. 2022;12(2):1-9.
41. UNICEF UK. The heat is on: Climate change and education in India. 2021.
42. Venkateswaran TV, Maitra U. Chemistry education in India: Practical challenges and low interest due to lack of laboratory facilities. RSC Education India Opinion. 2015.
43. Virtual Labs. Virtual Labs (India). Indian Institute of Technology consortium. Wikipedia. 2025.
44. Wang MT, Davis C, Friend C. Wang et al. reviewed school climate literature linking positive climate to student engagement and achievement. Education and Information Technologies. 2020.
45. Wieman C. PhET interactive simulations for chemistry education. Science Research. 2008.
46. Wieman C. PhET interactive simulations. PhET Interactive Simulations. 2008.
47. Wikipedia contributors. Digital Infrastructure for Knowledge Sharing. Wikipedia. 2024 Jun.
48. Behera DK, Gartia R, Sahoo RK, Munda S, Sahu P. A statistical investigation of the impact of social networking sites on students' academic achievement in western Odisha universities. Int J Stat Appl Math. 2022;7(6):19-23. doi:10.22271/maths.2022.v7.i6a.893.