Exploring the taxonomic richness and socioeconomic role of indigenous leafy vegetables: A review perspective

Introduction 1.1 Background and Significance

Indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs) are locally available, nutrient-dense plants that play a critical role in traditional diets, especially in rural and tribal communities across Asia and Africa. Despite their abundance and nutritional richness, ILVs have been underutilized and neglected in modern agricultural and food policy systems (Mbhenyane, 2017) [24] . They are often adapted to marginal agro-ecological zones and require minimal inputs, which makes them suitable for low-resource farming systems (Mavengahama et al. 2018) [21] . The nutritional value of ILVs often exceeds that of exotic leafy vegetables, as they contain significant amounts of essential micronutrients such as iron, calcium, vitamin A, and vitamin C, along with bioactive compounds like flavonoids and antioxidants (Sivakumar et al. 2018) [38] . These properties make ILVs particularly important in addressing micronutrient deficiencies, especially in food-insecure households (Mbhenyane, 2017; Sivakumar et al. 2018) [24,38] . Despite their nutritional benefits, ILVs face constraints such as perishability, limited research attention, market invisibility, and socio-cultural stigma as "poor man's food" (Mbhenyane, 2017; Mavengahama et al. 2018) [24,21] . These factors hinder their full potential in contributing to nutrition-sensitive agriculture and sustainable food systems. Promoting the cultivation and consumption of ILVs could enhance dietary diversity, improve rural livelihoods, and contribute to biodiversity conservation (Mamun et al. 2016; Sivakumar et al. 2018) [19,38] .

Scope of the Review

This review paper aims to explore and synthesize the existing literature on the taxonomic richness and socioeconomic roles of indigenous leafy vegetables. It seeks to:

• Document the botanical diversity and taxonomic classification of ILVs with an emphasis on their distribution and ecological adaptability; • Highlight the traditional uses and ethnobotanical relevance of ILVs in local food cultures; • Analyze the nutritional and phytochemical composition of selected ILVs; • Assess their contribution to food security, livelihoods, and rural income generation; • Identify the major constraints to their cultivation, utilization, and commercialization; • Recommend strategies for mainstreaming ILVs into agricultural policy and research agendas.

Methodology

This review employed a systematic and thematic approach to gather, analyze, and synthesize existing knowledge on Indigenous Leafy Vegetables (ILVs), focusing on their taxonomic diversity, ethnobotanical significance, nutritional composition, agroecological traits, and socioeconomic roles. Literature was sourced from reputable scientific databases including Google Scholar, PubMed, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, Scopus, and JSTOR, using keyword combinations such as "indigenous leafy vegetables", "ethnobotany", "nutritional profile", "agrobiodiversity", and "India". Boolean operators were used to refine search results. The inclusion criteria encompassed peer-reviewed journal articles, theses, institutional reports, and government publications published between 2000 and 2024. Non-English, unpublished, or non-credible sources were excluded.

The collected literature was screened and categorized under major thematic areas relevant to the objectives of the review. Key data on taxonomy, nutritional and phytochemical content, regional diversity, traditional uses, and socioeconomic contributions were extracted and synthesized qualitatively. Patterns, common findings, and knowledge gaps were identified to provide a comprehensive understanding of ILVs. All references were formatted following APA 7th edition guidelines. Data tables were constructed from consolidated findings to enhance clarity and comparison across studies.

Taxonomic Diversity of Indigenous Leafy Vegetables (ILVs) 3.1 Definition and Classification

Indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs) are defined as edible plant species-either wild or cultivated-that are locally adapted and traditionally consumed in specific regions. These vegetables are deeply embedded in local food systems and are recognized for their nutritional and cultural importance. According to Gupta, Srivastava, and Lal (2017) [13] , ILVs are often classified based on their botanical characteristics and familial affiliations, commonly falling under families such as Amaranthaceae, Fabaceae, Malvaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Solanaceae, and Basellaceae. These classifications encompass a wide variety of herbs, climbers, and shrubs that are primarily utilized for their leafy parts.

Floristic Composition and Species Richness

Floristically, ILVs represent a diverse group of species across various ecological regions. Gupta et al. (2017) [13] reported 26 ILV species across multiple botanical families in two districts of Jharkhand, including Amaranthus viridis, Centella asiatica, and Colocasia esculenta. In the Bargarh district of Odisha, Behera et al. (2020) [6] documented 39 wild leafy vegetable species from 26 families, highlighting the predominance of Amaranthaceae and Brassicaceae. Likewise, in northeast India, particularly Manipur, Singh et al. (2016) [37] identified 68 species of wild edible leafy vegetables belonging to 42 families used by tribal communities. Globally, Shackleton et al. (2009) [34] reported more than 100 ILV species across 31 families in sub-Saharan Africa, showcasing a similarly rich diversity.

Regional Diversity: Focus on India and Global Comparisons

India is a hotspot of ILV diversity, especially in ecologically diverse regions such as the northeastern states (Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya), Jharkhand, Odisha, and Uttarakhand. Singh et al. (2016) [37] emphasized the ethnobotanical wealth of Manipur, where tribal markets offer a wide variety of wild leafy greens harvested sustainably from forests and cultivated areas. Behera et al. (2020) [6] observed that seasonal and geographical variation influences ILV availability and use in Odisha. In comparison, African countries such as Nigeria, Kenya, and South Africa also report significant ILV use, particularly species like Cleome gynandra, Amaranthus spp., Corchorus olitorius, and Vigna unguiculata (Mavengahama, Mabhaudhi, & Modi, 2013) [20] . These vegetables are crucial to food security and are increasingly gaining recognition in global food and nutrition strategies.

Botanical Families and Representative Genera

The taxonomic composition of ILVs includes several dominant botanical families.

• Amaranthaceae: Includes widely consumed species like Amaranthus viridis, A. tricolor, and A. spinosus.

According to Gupta et al. (2017) [13] , these species are widely distributed and form dietary staples in many tribal communities. • Basellaceae: Basella alba (Malabar spinach) is a key ILV in many parts of India and Southeast Asia (Sivakumar, Chen, & Sultanbawa, 2018) [38] . • Fabaceae: The leaves of Vigna unguiculata (cowpea) and Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea) are traditional leafy vegetables in Africa and parts of India (Mavengahama et al. 2013) [20] . • Cucurbitaceae: Includes edible leaves of Cucurbita moschata and Lagenaria siceraria, often used in African and Indian cuisines (Mavengahama et al. 2013) [20] . • Solanaceae: Solanum nigrum and S. macrocarpon are commonly used in indigenous diets in both India and Africa (Singh et al. 2016) [37] . [38] .

Ethnobotanical Knowledge and Traditional Uses 4.1 Indigenous Knowledge Systems

Ethnobotanical knowledge on ILVs is deeply embedded within the traditional ecological practices of tribal and rural communities. Bharucha and Pretty (2010) [7] emphasized that wild leafy vegetables have long been integral to subsistence diets in mountain ecosystems like India's Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, where villagers provided detailed knowledge on species availability and use through household surveys and field walks. In Northeast India, Thongam, Konsam, and Handique (2016) [42] conducted structured interviews with tribal women and gathered extensive data on 68 ILV species, highlighting the primary role of indigenous female knowledge-bearers in preservation of plant use traditions. This accumulated wisdom includes information on seasonal availability, harvesting techniques, cooking practices, medicinal properties, and food taboos.

Culinary, Medicinal, and Cultural Significance

ILVs are valued not only as nutritious food but also for their medicinal and cultural uses. Sivakumar, Chen, and Sultanbawa (2018) [38] noted that many ILVs, such as Amaranthus spinosus, are traditionally consumed for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory benefits and applied in folk remedies for respiratory ailments like asthma and bronchitis. Similarly, local communities in Meghalaya consume Flemingia vestita (sohphlang) tuber as a vegetable and use it as an anthelmintic-a traditional treatment validated through scientific study (National Research Council). In the Nanda Devi area, villagers harvest Allium semnovii, Chenopodium foliolosum, and Diplazium esculentum among others, not only for food but also for perceived therapeutic effects such as relief from gastrointestinal discomfort and boost in vitality (Mishra et al. 2021 as cited by Bharucha & Pretty, 2010) [25,7] .

Local culinary practices include fermentation, drying, and leaf-paste making. The Nepali and Sikkimese dish gundruk, prepared by fermenting radish or mustard leaves, is a culturally significant food that extends shelf-life and provides essential minerals during off-season months. In Manipur and Assam, taro leaves are sun-dried and incorporated into stews or curry dishes evidence of culinary ingenuity in preserving and diversifying ILV usage across seasons.

Role of Tribal and Rural Communities in ILV Conservation

Tribal and rural communities serve as custodians of ILV biodiversity through traditional harvesting, cultivation, and seed-sharing systems. Bharucha and Pretty (2010) [7] documented that over 59% of surveyed households in alpine villages routinely collected wild leafy vegetables, with extraction volumes sometimes exceeding 2,000 kg annually per species such as Allium semnovii and Megacarpaea polyandra-demonstrating the scale of local use and its socioeconomic importance. Thongam et al. (2016) [42] highlighted that in Manipur, frequent collection of ILVs from forests and gardens contributes to both dietary diversity and maintenance of plant populations, while community seed exchange sustains genetic variability over time. Despite modernization pressures, these local practices remain vital to agrobiodiversity conservation, though they face challenges such as loss of habitat, erosion of traditional knowledge, and undervaluation in formal agriculture systems.

Nutritional and Phytochemical Profile of Indigenous

Leafy Vegetables (ILVs) 5.1 Macronutrient and Micronutrient Content Srivastava, Pan, Naik, Singh, and Bhatt (2024) [8] evaluated 22 underutilized leafy vegetable species from Eastern India and reported that crude protein levels ranged from 12.2 % to 28.8 %, carbohydrate content varied from 5.4 % to 18.8 %, and lipid content ranged from 2.1 % to 6.2 % on a dry weight basis. The ash content, reflecting total minerals, was between 11.6 % and 24.6 %, while energy values ranged from 108.9 to 215.5 kcal/100 g.

Sharma and Patel (2022) [35] emphasized that several indigenous leafy vegetables such as Amaranthus spp., Moringa oleifera, and Chenopodium album contain higher levels of micronutrients like calcium (up to 440 mg/100 g), iron (up to 9.4 mg/100 g), zinc, folate, and vitamin A compared to their exotic counterparts.

Bioactive Compounds (Antioxidants, Flavonoids, etc.)

According to Srivastava et al. (2024) [39] , many of these ILVs showed significant antioxidant capacity. Total phenolic content ranged from 0.40 to 6.92 mg GAE/100 g, and antioxidant activity measured through DPPH and FRAP assays revealed strong radical scavenging potential, especially in Portulaca oleracea and Centella asiatica.

In an African context, Ojiewo et al. (2019) [29] reported β-carotene concentrations of up to 47.8 mg/100 g in young Amaranthus and vitamin C content of up to 193.5 mg/100 g in mature Urtica dioica. These findings demonstrate the high potential of ILVs as sources of essential vitamins and antioxidants. Mavengahama, Mavengahama, and Modi (2022) [22] found Vigna unguiculata (cowpea) leaves to be rich in flavonoid glycosides and total flavonoid content up to 376 mg/100 g, including compounds like quercetin and gentisic acid derivatives, which contribute significantly to healthpromoting properties. Bhatt et al. (2022) [8] conducted a comparative analysis showing that Moringa oleifera leaves had superior phytochemical content compared to fenugreek, spinach, and lettuce, particularly in carotenoids (473 µg/g), α-tocopherol (83.7 µg/g), and phytosterols (206.4 µg/g).

Comparative Analysis with Exotic Leafy Vegetables

Agyemang, Tetteh, and Bonsu (2014) [3] analyzed nutritional content of indigenous versus exotic vegetables in Ghana and found that Amaranthus spp., Solanum aethiopicum, and Corchorus olitorius contained significantly higher levels of iron, magnesium, potassium, and vitamin C compared to exotic lettuce and cabbage. Nesamvuni, Steyn, and Potgieter (2020) [28] reported that ILVs like Cleome gynandra and Bidens pilosa outperformed exotic vegetables in nutrient accumulation during early development stages, providing advantages in food security and seasonal nutrition. Di Noia (2014) [10] , in a CDC-supported analysis, ranked green leafy vegetables based on nutrient density and concluded that many ILVs such as Moringa, Amaranth, and Jute mallow surpassed commonly consumed exotics like lettuce and iceberg in micronutrient values and phytochemical load.

Agroecological Characteristics and Adaptability 6.1 Ecological Distribution and Growing Conditions

Amaranth species (Amaranthus spp.) are widely regarded for their adaptability under adverse climatic conditions, thriving in tropical regions of Africa, Asia, and Latin America (Tadele, 2017 as cited in Holden et al. 2017) [, 14] . They can be harvested within 20-45 days of sowing, making them ideal for short-cycle production under limited rainfall (Holden et al. 2017) [14] . These C4 plants maintain high photosynthetic efficiency under heat and high radiation and often yield 32-40 t/ha under optimal conditions in Africa and Asia. Other resilient leafy species such as Ipomoea aquatica (water spinach) and Colocasia esculenta (taro) also perform well under humid or tropical zones with minimal inputs.

Resilience to Abiotic Stresses

Underutilized leafy vegetables (ULVs) are recognized for their climate-smart traits. In a broad synthesis of neglected and underutilized crops, Jones et al. (2023) highlighted that such crops generally outperform staples under stress conditions like drought, salinity, or poor soils due to their higher water-use efficiency and minimal input needs. Specifically, under agronomic field surveys in Kenya, Chepkoech et al. (2020) [9] reported that amaranth, jute, pumpkin leaves, and cowpea exhibited high tolerance to erratic rainfall, while spider plant and Ethiopian kale showed moderate susceptibility to heavy rain and leaf pathogens. Scientific reviews (e.g., Sarker et al. 2022) [31] also emphasize the unique chemodiversity of betalains in amaranth, which contribute to oxidative stress tolerance and nutritional quality-traits retained even under biotic and abiotic stress condition. Thus, ILVs such as amaranths and cowpea function as reliable sources of yield and nutrition under variable agro-climatic regimes.

Role in Agro-biodiversity and Sustainable Farming

Indigenous leafy vegetables enhance agro-ecosystem diversity both genetically and functionally. Raveloaritiana and Wanger (2024) [30] found that long-term diversification practices-including intercropping and incorporation of ILVs-can increase ecosystem biodiversity, soil quality, carbon sequestration, and financial profitability over decades. Jarvis et al. (2003) [15] further note that inclusion of diverse plant families like Amaranthaceae, Solanaceae, Cucurbitaceae, and Fabaceae-as is common with ILVspromotes pest resistance, resilience to weather fluctuations, and genetic heterogeneity within farms.

Traditional multi-species gardens and mixed cropping systems in smallholder farms help conserve ILV genetic diversity and soil health. Holden et al. (2017) [14] described farmers' practice of intercropping amaranth with staples or legumes to maintain low-input systems that mitigate risk, improve nutrient cycling, and stabilize yields under marginal condition. Such systems align with regenerative and conservation agriculture practices by reducing tillage, maintaining ground cover, and strengthening ecological resilience.

Summary

Aspect Insights Distribution & Growing Conditions

ILVs such as amaranth, taro, and water spinach flourish in tropical, marginal soils; harvestable in short cycles (20-45 days) Abiotic Stress Tolerance High resilience to drought, heat, salinity; stable yields even under erratic rainfall and poor soils Agrobiodiversity & Sustainability Support crop diversification, soil fertility, pest resilience; align with regenerative and conservation agriculture principles

Socioeconomic Importance of Indigenous Leafy Vegetables (ILVs) 7.1 Contribution to Household Food Security

Mungofa, Sibanyoni, and Mashau (2022) [26] underscore that ILVs play a critical role in sustaining livelihoods of low-income rural populations by providing resilient, nutrient-dense food under harsh agro-ecological conditions (e.g. drought, low-input soils). Similarly, Gido et al. (2017) [12] observed in Kenya that increased diversity and retail availability of leafy African Indigenous Vegetables (AIVs) significantly enhances consumption intensity, ensuring more balanced micronutrient intake across household members (. Furthermore, ILVs are known to bridge seasonal food gaps since they can be stored (e.g. dried) for lean periods, supplying essential vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber critical for maternal and child nutrition (Mungofa et al. 2022) [26] .

Role in Livelihoods and Income Generation

According to Abukutsa-Onyango (2003) [1] , indigenous leafy vegetables in Kenya and Uganda offer low-barrier income avenues especially for women and youth-allowing individuals to earn beyond subsistence levels by engaging in collection, trade, and cultivation of ILVs. In Côte d'Ivoire, Kamanzi (2013) [16] documents how women dominate ILV trade in urban markets, earning daily revenues from jute mallow and sweetpotato leaves ranging from USD 0.40 to USD 3.47-surpassing local poverty thresholds even after covering input costs. Further analysis by Mayekiso et al.

(2021) [23] in Eastern Cape, South Africa, confirmed that rural households engaged in ILV production report positive gross margins and improved food security, with ILVs playing multiple roles-as food, medicinal aid, and occasional livestock feed-with potential to significantly enhance rural livelihoods.

Market Potential and Value-Addition Opportunities

Cleome gynandra (spider plant) is documented as one of the highest income-generating ILVs in southern Africa, with structured market contracts linking producers to supermarkets, lodges, and hotels across Botswana, South Africa, and Zimbabwe-underscoring its commercial viability (Makaza et al. 2022) [18] . In Uganda, participatory market-chain innovations (Participatory Market Chain Approach) have enhanced performance of African leafy vegetable chains by fostering linkages between farmers, processors, extension services, and traders, resulting in improved productivity, consistency of supply, and greater visibility for ILV products (Food & Business Knowledge Platform, Uganda). These coordinated efforts have facilitated diversification of products-such as canned or dried ILV-based ingredients-expanding acceptability among both rural and urban consumers.

Summary

• Food Security: ILVs provide affordable, micronutrient-rich food even under poor agricultural conditions; their diverse diets contribute to nutritional resilience and reduced malnutrition risk. [26] , younger generations increasingly perceive ILVs as old-fashioned, leading to loss of cultivation and preparation know-how-heightening the risk of genetic erosion (e.g. elimination of local varieties). Voeks and Leony (2004) [44] , referenced in Sarker et al. (2022) [31] , reported similar trends among youth in Borneo, who distanced themselves from plant-based livelihoods, reducing intergenerational transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge. This knowledge gap is compounded by limited documentation systems: instead of oral traditions being codified, vital skills are disappearing over time without preservation strategies in place.

Threats from Land Use Change and Commercialization

Land use change driven by agricultural expansion, deforestation, and urbanization significantly threatens ILV habitats. For example, communities in Oromia, Ethiopia reported that expansion of crop lands, invasive eucalyptus planting, and overgrazing were primary drivers of wild edible plant decline, including leafy vegetable species. Similarly, in Nepal, rapid socio-economic transformation and habitat degradation due to settlement expansion were linked to decline in wild vegetable availability and loss of associated cultural practices. Commercialization, paradoxically, can undermine traditional production systems. Indigenous community conserved areas (ICCAs) are vulnerable when land rights are weakened or customary usage systems are overridden by external development or market pressures, resulting in displacement of traditional custodians and loss of ecological stewardship (ICCA Forum analysis). WEP-focused studies in Kenya emphasized that overharvesting, invasive species invasion, and overgrazing-often driven by increased demand or livelihood pressures-are among the top threats to these native plant populations.

Constraints in Cultivation and Marketing

A survey in Limpopo, South Africa found that only 35 % of respondents cultivated ILVs-many preferred wild harvesting instead-because of low perceived need, lack of cultivation knowledge, and inadequate access to irrigation or prepared land. Insufficient seed systems for indigenous vegetables, limited agricultural extension support, and climate-related declines in productivity further hamper cultivation initiatives. Institutional and market constraints also impede commercialization. Smallholder producers often lack access to high-quality ILV seeds, inputs (e.g. fertilizers), and irrigation infrastructure, while uncertain land and water rights exacerbate investment risks, especially near urban areas.

preservation and processing knowledge, infrastructure, and utilization of indigenous food-techniques (e.g. drying, fermentation). The fast-evolving urban tastes, rising demand for convenience foods, and negative consumer perceptions (ILVs as "poor people's food") undermine demand, pushing younger consumers toward exotic or processed diets.

Strategies for Promotion and

Taxonomic and Genomic Studies

There is a pressing need to systematically identify and characterize ILV species through modern taxonomic and genomic approaches. For example, Srivastava et al. (2024) [40] highlighted the diversity in Eastern India, but further genomic analysis-such as DNA barcoding, genome sequencing, and phylogeographic mapping-can uncover cryptic diversity, identify landraces, and support crop improvement initiatives. Likewise, Singh et al. (2016) [37] emphasized that wild edible plants in Manipur are an underdocumented gene reservoir for crop breeding and biodiversity conservation (Srivastava et al. 2024 [39] ; Singh et al. 2016 [37] as noted in turn0search3 and turn0search4). [17] . Building on such evidence, longitudinal dietary trials assessing bioavailability of micronutrients, effects on anemia, and gut microbiome modulation are needed. [2] .

Conclusion 11.1 Summary of Key Insights

Indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs) represent a vast reservoir of biodiversity, cultural heritage, and nutritional wealth. This review highlights the taxonomic richness and regional diversity of ILVs, with India serving as a hotspot for species belonging to genera like Amaranthus, Basella, Celosia, Corchorus, and Portulaca. These vegetables span several botanical families such as Amaranthaceae, Malvaceae, and Chenopodiaceae, contributing significantly to dietary diversity and agro-ecological sustainability (Singh et al. 2016; Srivastava et al. 2024) [37,40] . Ethnobotanical evidence reveals that ILVs hold culinary, medicinal, and socio-cultural value, especially among tribal and rural communities. Nutritionally, ILVs are rich in micronutrients like iron, calcium, and beta-carotene, and contain bioactive phytochemicals such as flavonoids and antioxidants (Lopes et al. 2024) [17] . Their resilience to biotic and abiotic stresses and adaptability to marginal environments make them ideal candidates for climateresilient farming and sustainable food systems. However, traditional knowledge erosion, limited research investments, and market neglect continue to hinder their full potential. Conservation strategies, supported by community seed banks, participatory varietal selection (Acheampong et al. 2023) [2] , and in situ/ex situ programs, are essential to safeguard and promote ILVs.

Way Forward for Harnessing ILV Potential

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