Diversity and economic assessment of aquatic plants: A review perspective

Introduction 1.1 Background and Importance of Aquatic Plants

Aquatic plants, also known as macrophytes or hydrophytes, are critical components of freshwater ecosystems. They contribute significantly to the ecological functioning, productivity, and sustainability of aquatic environments. These plants play a vital role in oxygen production, nutrient cycling, sediment stabilization, and providing shelter and breeding grounds for various aquatic organisms. Their ability to support primary productivity makes them indispensable for maintaining aquatic biodiversity and food web dynamics (Li et al. 2011) [23] . Moreover, aquatic plants are natural biofilters, effectively removing pollutants such as heavy metals, excess nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), and organic matter from water bodies through a process known as phytoremediation (Barznji, 2014) [5] . This makes them useful for the restoration and management of polluted wetlands and rivers, especially in developing regions where cost-effective water treatment strategies are needed (Nagajyothi et al. 2025) [27] . In addition to ecological services, many aquatic plants have substantial economic value. They are used for medicinal purposes, animal fodder, composting, biofuel production, and even as human food in various traditional and modern systems. Their multifaceted utility underlines the need to conserve and sustainably manage these biological resources (Racine, 2022) [31] .

Scope of the Review

This review encompasses a multidisciplinary examination of aquatic plants, focusing on their taxonomic diversity, ecological significance, and economic potential, particularly in the context of riverine ecosystems such as the River Arpa. The scope extends beyond simple species documentation to incorporate functional roles, utilization patterns, and conservation challenges associated with aquatic macrophytes.

The specific scope includes

• Geographical Scope: While the primary focus is on aquatic plant species found in the River Arpa, the review also includes references to comparable riverine ecosystems in India and other tropical/subtropical regions to provide broader ecological and socioeconomic context. • Ecological Scope: The review discusses different categories of aquatic plants-emergent, submerged, free-floating, and rooted floating species-and evaluates their roles in ecosystem functioning, such as water purification, oxygenation, erosion control, and habitat support for aquatic organisms. • Economic Scope: Special attention is given to species with economic relevance, including their use in traditional medicine, agriculture (as fodder and green manure), local cuisine, handicrafts, and phytoremediation. The review also considers market potential and livelihood generation, especially for rural and indigenous communities.

• Temporal Scope: The study draws upon past and recent literature from peer-reviewed journals, theses, government reports, and field studies conducted over the last two decades to ensure a comprehensive understanding of historical trends and present challenges.

• Policy and Conservation Scope:

The review highlights major threats to aquatic plant biodiversitysuch as pollution, invasive species, and habitat destruction-and evaluates existing conservation efforts and policy frameworks, suggesting improvements for sustainable management.

Methodology

This review paper is based on a comprehensive analysis of secondary data obtained from peer-reviewed journals, research articles, books, and official reports focusing on the classification, ecological roles, economic uses, and conservation of aquatic plants in freshwater ecosystems. A systematic literature review approach was adopted to ensure the credibility and relevance of the information.

Data Collection

Relevant literature was sourced from reputable academic databases such as Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, PubMed, Scopus, and the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ). Search keywords included "aquatic plant diversity," "economic uses of aquatic macrophytes," "riverine aquatic flora," "invasive aquatic plants," "wetland conservation," and "ecological services of aquatic vegetation."

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Only articles published between 1995 and 2024 in English were considered. Priority was given to peer-reviewed articles, systematic reviews, and case studies relevant to tropical and subtropical freshwater environments. Grey literature, unpublished theses, and anecdotal reports were excluded to maintain scientific integrity.

Quantitative data (e.g., economic value, species richness) were tabulated where applicable, and qualitative findings were described thematically. Case studies from different regions were also compared to highlight common patterns and regional variations.

Classification and Diversity of Aquatic Plants

Aquatic plants, also known as macrophytes or hydrophytes, are essential components of freshwater ecosystems. [21] .

Submerged Plants

Submerged plants are completely underwater for most of their life cycle. Common examples include Hydrilla verticillata, Ceratophyllum demersum, and Egeria densa. These species play a crucial role in oxygen production, habitat provisioning for aquatic fauna, and nutrient cycling.

According to Abu Bakar et al. (2013) [1] , submerged macrophytes are efficient at absorbing heavy metals and improving water quality. Nafea and Zyada (2015) [26] emphasized their potential in mitigating water pollution through phytoremediation.

Emergent Plants

Emergent macrophytes are rooted in the substrate but extend above the water surface. Typical species include Typha spp. and Phragmites australis. These plants stabilize sediments, prevent erosion, and serve as breeding and nesting grounds for many aquatic and semi-aquatic species (Vymazal, 2013; Zhang et al. 2015) [39,42] . Their robust root systems enhance water filtration by trapping particles and excess nutrients. [7,36] .

Floating-Leaved Plants

Free-Floating Plants

Free-floating macrophytes, such as Lemna minor, Spirodela polyrhiza, Azolla pinnata, and Pistia stratiotes, are not attached to the substrate. They can rapidly colonize water surfaces and are widely used in phytoremediation due to their high nutrient uptake capacity (Ali et al. 2020) [2] . These species are vital for nutrient cycling and habitat formation.

Taxonomic Overview

Aquatic macrophytes span multiple taxonomic groups, including orders like Alismatales, Ceratophyllales, and Nymphaeales. Sculthorpe (1967) [35] and Barrett and Graham (1997) [4] noted that aquatic life forms have evolved independently in several lineages, reflecting diverse morphological and physiological adaptations. Aquatic plants span multiple taxonomic groups, primarily within the angiosperms (flowering plants), but also include non-vascular plants like algae and bryophytes. Common families include Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Nymphaeaceae, and Hydrocharitaceae, with Poaceae being notably diverse in wetlands (Hossain et al. 2017) [19] . Taxonomic diversity is lower in aquatic compared to terrestrial ecosystems due to environmental constraints like anoxia and limited light. Molecular phylogenetics reveal low genetic differentiation within species, attributed to clonal reproduction and broad ecological tolerances (Chambers et al. 2008) [10] .

Biodiversity in Freshwater Ecosystems

Freshwater ecosystems host a rich diversity of macrophytes due to varying hydrological and environmental conditions. According to Bornette et al. (1998) [7] , species diversity is influenced by factors like connectivity, nutrient availability, and disturbance regimes. These plants form complex communities that support a wide range of aquatic organisms and ecosystem processes.

Freshwater ecosystems, occupying less than 1% of Earth's surface, host disproportionate biodiversity, with aquatic plants playing critical roles in ecosystem stability (Collen et al. 2012) [11] . Species richness varies by region, with higher diversity in warm temperate latitudes and lower in tropical systems due to environmental stressors (Crow, 1993) [12] . Environmental heterogeneity, such as varying water chemistry and habitat availability, drives diversity patterns, particularly for submerged and emergent species (Zelnik et al. 2025) [41] .

Overview of Riverine Aquatic Flora

Aquatic flora in riverine ecosystems varies considerably based on hydrology, substrate type, light availability, and disturbance frequency. These ecosystems often support a mosaic of submerged, emergent, and floating species that contribute significantly to habitat complexity and biodiversity.

Emergent macrophytes, such as Phragmites australis and Schoenoplectus spp., are commonly found along riverbanks and floodplains. They reduce water flow velocity, trap sediments, and enhance fish feeding efficiency.

General Features of Aquatic Flora in River Ecosystems

Riverine aquatic flora includes submerged, floating, and emergent plants adapted to dynamic flow regimes. These plants often have flexible stems, aerenchyma for oxygen transport, and extensive root systems to anchor against currents (Bornette & Puijalon, 2011) [6] . Species like Potamogeton pectinatus thrive in fast-flowing waters, while Nuphar lutea prefers slower pools. Their morphology supports resilience to mechanical stress and fluctuating water levels (Amoros et al. 2000) [3] .

Environmental Conditions Influencing Plant Diversity

Environmental factors such as water flow, nutrient availability, and light penetration significantly influence riverine plant diversity. High flow velocities increase erosion, promoting species richness by creating heterogeneous microhabitats (Bornette et al. 2000) [8] . Nutrient-rich waters favor fast-growing species, but excessive nutrients can reduce diversity by favoring dominants like Phragmites australis (Phillips et al. 1978) [30] . Water chemistry, particularly pH and phosphate levels, shapes community composition, with submerged plants sensitive to habitat availability (Liu et al. 2023) [25] .

Aquatic Plant Diversity in Central Indian Riverine Systems (Case Review)

While specific studies on certain rivers in Central India are limited, regional assessments provide insight into the general composition and ecological roles of aquatic macrophytes. Emergent species such as Typha spp. and Phragmites australis are dominant in many slow-flowing and stagnant stretches. Free-floating genera like Azolla pinnata and Lemna minor are also prevalent.

Reported Species

Studies in similar ecological zones have documented:

• Emergent: Typha angustifolia, Phragmites australis • Free-floating: Azolla pinnata, Lemna minor, Spirodela polyrhiza • Submerged: Hydrilla verticillata, Ceratophyllum demersum

Ecological Roles and Habitat Preferences

• Typha and Phragmites form dense stands that trap sediments and provide cover for birds and amphibians. • Azolla contributes to nitrogen fixation and improves water fertility. • Submerged species enhance oxygenation and serve as refuges for small fishes and invertebrates (Abu Bakar et al. 2013) [1] .

Invasive vs. Native Species

Invasive macrophytes, such as Pistia stratiotes and Eichhornia crassipes, often outcompete native species, leading to reduced biodiversity and altered ecosystem functioning. Their proliferation is frequently linked to nutrient enrichment and hydrological modifications.

Reported Species in a River Ecosystem

This river ecosystem supports a diverse aquatic flora, including Potamogeton natans (floating pondweed), Myriophyllum spicatum (spiked watermilfoil), and

Phragmites australis (common reed), identified in regional surveys of freshwater ecosystems (Fayvush et al. 2010) [14] . Emergent species like Typha angustifolia and submerged plants such as Ceratophyllum demersum are also present, reflecting the river's varied microhabitats.

Ecological Roles and Habitat Preferences

Aquatic plants in this river stabilize sediments, reduce erosion, and provide habitat for fish and invertebrates. Submerged species like Myriophyllum spicatum prefer deeper, slower-moving waters with high light availability, while emergent Phragmites australis thrives in shallow, nutrient-rich zones (Bornette & Puijalon, 2011) [6] . These plants contribute to nutrient cycling by absorbing nitrogen and phosphorus, enhancing water quality (Caffrey et al.

Invasive vs. Native Species

Economic Importance of Aquatic Plants

Aquatic plants offer substantial economic value across various sectors, including medicine, agriculture, industry, and traditional livelihoods. Their applications highlight the need for sustainable utilization and conservation.

Medicinal Uses

Several aquatic plants have documented medicinal properties. Ipomoea aquatica is traditionally used to treat liver disorders and is a source of antioxidants (Li et al.

2007) [24] . Azolla has anti-inflammatory properties and is used in traditional remedies in parts of Asia. Aquatic plants like Centella asiatica and Nelumbo nucifera are valued for their medicinal properties, with extracts showing anticancer and antioxidative effects (Bornette & Puijalon, 2011) [6] .

Ludwigia adscendens roots and stems exhibit lipoxygenase inhibitory activity, used in traditional medicine for inflammation (Chambers et al. 2008) [10] .

Edible Aquatic Plants

Ipomoea aquatica, known as water spinach, is widely consumed in Southeast Asia and parts of India. It is rich in vitamins and minerals and has culinary significance. Duckweeds and Azolla are also used as supplementary vegetables in rural diets (Pandey, 2011) [29] . Species such as Ipomoea aquatica (water spinach) and Nasturtium officinale (watercress) are consumed globally, providing nutritional benefits like vitamins and minerals. These plants are harvested from freshwater systems for local diets and commercial markets (Hossain et al. 2017) [19] .

Livestock Feed and Compost

Aquatic plants like Azolla are excellent sources of protein and are used as livestock feed, particularly in integrated rice-fish farming systems. Ipomoea aquatica is fed to cattle, pigs, and poultry, enhancing nutritional intake and reducing feed costs (Bangladesh aquaculture studies). Aquatic plants like Lemna minor are used as livestock feed due to their high protein content. They are also composted to enrich soil, particularly in regions with nutrient-poor substrates, supporting sustainable agriculture (Caffrey et al. 2006) [9] .

Industrial and Commercial Applications

Floating macrophytes such as Pistia stratiotes and Salvinia are employed in constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment and heavy metal removal. Submerged species like Hydrilla and Ceratophyllum are used in aquaria and ecological restoration projects (Ali et al. 2020) [2] . Aquatic plants are used in phytoremediation to treat wastewater, with species like Phragmites australis removing nitrogen and phosphorus in constructed wetlands (Roongtanakiat et al. 2007) [34] . Water hyacinth is processed into biofuels and crafts, contributing to local economies.

Traditional Practices and Rural Livelihoods

In many rural communities, aquatic plants support livelihoods through fishing, composting, and the production of handicrafts. They also play roles in cultural and religious practices, reflecting their socio-economic importance (East Kolkata Wetlands case). In many cultures, aquatic plants are integral to traditional practices, such as weaving mats from Typha species or using Nymphaea in rituals. They support rural livelihoods through harvesting for food, medicine, and crafts (Hossain et al. 2017) [19] . [17] ; Vymazal (2013) [39] Edible

Ipomoea aquatica, Nelumbo nucifera

Consumed as vegetables or snacks; seeds and roots eaten Pandey (2011) [29] ; Hasan & Chakrabarti (2009) [18] Livestock Feed

Lemna minor, Azolla filiculoides

High protein content; used as poultry and cattle feed Hasan & Chakrabarti (2009) [18] Compost and Green Manure

Salvinia natans, Hydrilla verticillata

Used for composting, increasing organic matter in soils Ghosh et al. (2004) [17] ; Nafea & Zyada (2015) [26] Industrial/Commercial Typha angustifolia, Eichhornia crassipes Used in handicrafts, paper pulp, fiberboard, biogas production Vymazal (2013) [39] ; Ali et al.

(2020) [2] Traditional Use Nelumbo nucifera, Ipomoea aquatica Used in religious ceremonies, cultural practices Pandey (2011) [29] ; Dudgeon et al.

(2006) [13] [33] (SpringerLink, ResearchGate) Tumakuru district, Karnataka ~47.1 billion ₹/yr total Wetland services including provisioning and regulating mediated by aquatic plants IISc study met SEEA methods (2021) [20] (WGBIS) Kole Wetlands, Kerala ~₹390 crore (~3.9 billion ₹) total Paddy cultivation, fishing, lotus farming, duckrearing, carbon sequestration

Neha & Tamhankar (2021) [28] (Krishikosh) Ashtamudi Estuary, Kerala Fisheries, tourism, agriculture, carbon storage, flood protection Ekka, Pandit, Katiha & Biswas (2021) [15] (eBook Icar)

Environmental and Ecological Services

Aquatic plants contribute to numerous ecosystem services that support environmental sustainability and biodiversity.

Water Purification and Nutrient Cycling

Macrophytes absorb excess nutrients, filter pollutants, and stabilize water quality. Emergent species like Typha and Phragmites are effective in removing nitrogen and phosphorus, while submerged plants trap suspended solids and enhance oxygenation (Vymazal, 2013) [39] . Aquatic plants absorb excess nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus, reducing eutrophication. Phragmites australis and Typha latifolia are used in constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment, promoting denitrification through root-associated microbes (Roongtanakiat et al. 2007) [34] . They enhance nutrient cycling by transferring nutrients from sediments to the water column (Caffrey et al. 2006) [9] .

Soil Stabilization and Erosion Control

Emergent plants stabilize riverbanks and reduce soil erosion through extensive root systems. Their presence helps maintain sediment balance and prevent land degradation (Taihu Lake Study). Emergent plants like Juncus acutus stabilize riverbanks with extensive root systems, reducing erosion caused by currents and waves. Submerged plants slow water flow, promoting sediment deposition and preventing shoreline degradation (Bornette et al. 2000) [8] .

Habitat for Aquatic Fauna

Macrophyte beds provide critical habitat for fish, amphibians, and macroinvertebrates. They offer spawning grounds, refuge from predators, and feeding areas, thereby supporting aquatic biodiversity and fisheries productivity (Bornette et al. 1998) [7] . Aquatic plants create microhabitats for fish like Gambusia affinis, amphibians, and invertebrates. Submerged species provide breeding grounds, while floating plants offer shade and shelter. This habitat complexity increases faunal diversity and density (Law et al. 2024) [22] .

In conclusion, aquatic plants play indispensable roles in ecological functioning, economic development, and environmental management. Their conservation and sustainable utilization are vital for maintaining the health of freshwater ecosystems and supporting human livelihoods.

Threats to Aquatic Plant Diversity

Aquatic plant diversity is increasingly threatened by a combination of anthropogenic and natural factors that degrade habitat quality and disrupt ecological balance.

Pollution and Habitat Degradation

Pollution, particularly from agricultural runoff, industrial effluents, and domestic sewage, introduces excessive nutrients and toxic substances into aquatic ecosystems. This leads to eutrophication, algal blooms, and hypoxia, which suppress the growth of native aquatic macrophytes and alter community composition (Nafea & Zyada, 2015; Vymazal, 2013) [26,39] . Heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants also accumulate in sediments and plant tissues, impairing physiological functions and reproduction. Simultaneously, habitat degradation through dredging, damming, and land reclamation alters hydrology and destroys critical zones for plant growth such as wetlands and floodplains (Dudgeon et al. 2006) [13] .

Overexploitation and Invasive Species

Overharvesting of aquatic plants for food, fodder, and commercial use can lead to localized extinction of sensitive species. Traditional practices, when unsustainable, may further exacerbate this decline (Ghosh, Sen, & Mondal, 2004) [17] . The introduction and rapid proliferation of invasive species such as Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes, and Salvinia molesta displace native flora by monopolizing light, nutrients, and space (Barrett & Graham, 1997) [4] . These invasives often form dense mats that hinder photosynthesis and reduce oxygen levels, leading to altered food web dynamics and decreased biodiversity (Ali et al. 2020) [2] .

Climate Change Impact

Global climate change poses long-term threats to aquatic plant diversity. Changes in temperature, rainfall patterns, and frequency of extreme weather events can shift hydrological regimes, affecting germination, growth, and reproductive cycles of aquatic macrophytes (Bornette, Amoros, & Lamouroux, 1998) [7] . Species with narrow ecological tolerance are particularly vulnerable, potentially resulting in shifts in species distributions and local extinctions. Climate-induced sea-level rise also leads to salinization of freshwater habitats, further stressing native aquatic vegetation (Dudgeon et al. 2006) [13] . [7] ; Dudgeon et al. (2006) [13] ; Ali et al. (2020) [2]

Conservation and Sustainable Utilization Strategies

To mitigate the loss of aquatic plant biodiversity and ensure sustainable use, a multifaceted approach combining scientific, traditional, and policy-based strategies is essential.

In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation

In-situ conservation focuses on preserving aquatic plant species within their natural habitats. Protected wetlands, biosphere reserves, and Ramsar sites offer vital refuges for aquatic macrophytes and associated fauna (Vymazal, 2013) [39] . Ex-situ methods, such as botanical gardens, seed banks, and controlled aquaculture systems, help safeguard germplasm and support reintroduction programs (Li, Kong, & Tang, 2007) [24] . Advances in tissue culture and cryopreservation further facilitate conservation of rare and endemic species.

Community Involvement and Traditional Knowledge

Integrating local communities in conservation initiatives promotes sustainable resource use and fosters environmental stewardship. Indigenous knowledge systems often include sustainable harvesting practices, seasonal use patterns, and ethno-botanical understanding that can enhance conservation outcomes (Ghosh et al. 2004) [17] . Participatory management models, such as community-based wetland management, empower local stakeholders and improve compliance with conservation guidelines.

Policy and Regulatory Framework

Legislation and policy support are critical for regulating exploitation and ensuring conservation of aquatic flora. National Biodiversity Acts, wetland protection policies, and sustainable development goals provide the legal basis for conservation interventions. Effective implementation, however, requires coordination between government agencies, research institutions, and community organizations (Dudgeon et al. 2006) [13] . Environmental impact assessments (EIA) and integrated water resource management (IWRM) are additional tools to safeguard aquatic habitats during development activities.

Research Gaps and Future Perspectives

Despite growing interest, significant knowledge gaps remain in understanding the ecology, utility, and management of aquatic plants, especially in tropical and subtropical regions.

Need for Detailed Ecological and Economic Studies

There is a pressing need for comprehensive ecological assessments of aquatic plant diversity across different aquatic ecosystems. Quantitative studies on species distribution, biomass production, ecological roles, and interactions with fauna are limited (Bornette et al. 1998) [7] . Similarly, economic evaluations of ecosystem services provided by aquatic plants-such as nutrient cycling, water purification, and livelihood support-remain underexplored, hindering their inclusion in policy frameworks (Pandey, 2011) [29] .

Potential for Commercialization and Cultivation

Several aquatic plants, including Ipomoea aquatica, Azolla, and duckweeds, have high potential for commercial applications in food, feed, biofertilizer, and wastewater treatment sectors (Hasan & Chakrabarti, 2009; Ali et al. 2020) [18,2] . Developing protocols for large-scale cultivation, processing, and market linkages can enhance rural income and promote sustainable use. Innovations in aquaponics, hydroponics, and integrated farming systems offer viable avenues for scalable production.

Integration into Rural Development Programs

Aquatic plant utilization can be integrated into rural development programs focusing on nutrition, income generation, and environmental sustainability. Government schemes on wetland management, climate resilience, and biodiversity conservation can include components for aquatic plant cultivation, conservation education, and capacity building. Linking research outputs with extension services can improve adoption at the grassroots level (Feng, Wang, & Zhang, 2025) [16] . riverine systems harboring a variety of emergent, submerged, and floating species. However, aquatic plant diversity is under serious threat from pollution, habitat degradation, invasive species, and climate change. Addressing these challenges requires a combination of conservation strategies, community involvement, policy reforms, and scientific research. While several aquatic plants have demonstrated economic value, their sustainable utilization remains limited due to knowledge and market constraints.

Importance of Balancing Utilization and Conservation

To ensure the long-term sustainability of aquatic ecosystems, it is crucial to balance the utilization of aquatic plants with their conservation. This involves adopting an ecosystem-based approach that recognizes the intrinsic value of biodiversity while promoting livelihoods. In-situ and ex-situ conservation, integrated with traditional knowledge and modern science, can help preserve aquatic flora for future generations. Additionally, filling research gaps and embedding aquatic plant management in rural development and policy agendas will be key to enhancing both ecological and economic outcomes.

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