Enhancing chickpea productivity through improved crop management practices in farmers’ fields of Kalaburagi district, Karnataka

Introduction

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is a protein-rich legume of the semi-arid tropics, predominantly grown under rainfed conditions. In India, chickpea is cultivated over 10.74 million hectares, producing 13.54 million tonnes with an average productivity of 1261 kg ha⁻¹ (Anon., 2024) [1] . In Karnataka, it occupies 0.73 million hectares with a production of 0.47 million tonnes and an average productivity of 689 kg ha⁻¹ (Anon., 2024a) [2] . Chickpea is grown in almost all states, with major cultivation in Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, and Gujarat. In Karnataka, approximately 90% of chickpea area is concentrated in northern districts (Singh et al., 2015) [16] . Kalaburagi district, known as the "Pulse Bowl of Karnataka," ranks first in both area (1.36 lakh ha) and production (0.88 lakh tonnes), accounting for 53% of the state's chickpea area. However, the district's productivity (650 kg ha⁻¹) remains below the state and national averages (Anon., 2023) [3] . Chickpea is cultivated primarily for grain as dhal, a major source of protein for smallholder farmers, containing three times the protein of cereals. Tender green seeds are consumed as vegetables, and crushed seeds are used as animal feed. Major constraints to chickpea productivity include cultivation on poor soils with inadequate or imbalanced nutrition, use of local or disease-susceptible varieties, lack of seed treatment, and insufficient integrated weed and pest management (Shetty et al., 2013) [15] . Front Line Demonstration (FLD) is an effective extension approach, based on the principle that "seeing is believing." FLDs aim to showcase newly released crop production and protection technologies directly in farmers' fields, enabling scientists to identify factors contributing to higher yields, assess field-level constraints, and convince farmers to adopt improved practices. FLDs also foster continuous interaction between farmers and scientists, providing practical guidance to increase yields (Bhargav et al., 2017) [5] . Considering these factors, frontline demonstrations on chickpea were conducted in farmers' fields of Kalaburagi to highlight the production potential and economic benefits of the latest improved technologies.

Materials and Methods

The All India Coordinated Research Project on Chickpea, Zonal Agricultural Research Station, Kalaburagi, in collaboration with Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kalaburagi, conducted Front Line Demonstrations (FLDs) on 50 farmers' fields across four adopted villages-Melkunda, Suntanur, Babalad, and Sannur-in Kalaburagi district during the rabi seasons of 2022-23 and 2023-24. The demonstrations were carried out under rainfed conditions on medium to deep black soils with low to medium fertility, within a pulse-based cropping system. www.extensionjournal.com Prior to FLDs, farmers were selected through group meetings, and specific training was provided on improved chickpea cultivation practices. The Improved Crop Management (ICM) practices implemented included:  Use of wilt-resistant chickpea variety BGD 111-1  Seed treatment with Trichoderma (4 g kg⁻¹ seeds)  Application of biofertilizers (Rhizobium and PSB, 1250 g ha⁻¹ each)  Integrated nutrient management: 10:25:0 NPK kg ha⁻¹ + ZnSO₄ 15 kg ha⁻¹ + S 20 kg ha⁻¹  Integrated Pest Management (Mishra et al., 2017) [9] In the farmers' practice plots, existing local practices were followed for comparison. Fertilizer dose 10:25:0 kg N:P:K ha -1 + Sulphur @ 20 kg / ha Zinc Sulphate (15 kg ha -1 ) 25 -30 kg DAP only 25% 8.

Comparison of demonstration packages and farmers

Weed management Pre-emergence application of Pendimethalin @ 2.5 lit ha -1 Manual weeding 50%

Plant protection Need based application Non judicious use of pesticides (3-4 sprays) 35%

The soils in the study area were generally medium to deep black soils with low to medium fertility. Field visits were organized for farmers and extension personnel to disseminate improved cultivation practices. Demonstration farmers were guided by scientists from the Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) and Agricultural Research Station (ARS) in carrying out key field operations, including sowing, seed treatment, fertilizer application, pest and weed management, and harvesting during the training sessions and visits.

Traditional practices were maintained in the control plots using the local variety A-1.

Data were collected from both FLD plots and farmers' practice plots. Based on these data, extension gap, technology gap, technology index, and benefit-cost ratio were calculated following the procedures described by Thakur et al. ( 2016) [21] .

Technological gap = Potential yield -demonstration yield

Extension gap = demonstration yield -farmer's practice yield Potential yield -demonstration yield Technological Index = X 100 Potential yield Each Front Line Demonstration (FLD) was conducted on 0.4 ha, with an adjacent 0.4 ha area maintained under farmers' practices as a control. Sowing was carried out from the first fortnight of October in both years, using a seed rate of 50 kg ha⁻¹. Full doses of nitrogen and phosphorus (10:25:0 NPK kg ha⁻¹) through diammonium phosphate were applied as a basal dose. Zinc sulfate (15 kg ha⁻¹) and sulfur (20 kg ha⁻¹) were applied 30 days after sowing. Seeds were treated with Trichoderma viride (4 g kg⁻¹), Rhizobium, and PSB (1250 g ha⁻¹ each). Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices were implemented as needed, including: 1. Ovicidal spray with Profenophos 50 EC @ 2 L ha⁻¹ 2. Pheromone traps @ 5 ha⁻¹ 3. Bird perches @ 10 ha⁻¹ 4. Contact insecticide @ 2 L ha⁻¹ Other cultivation practices in the demonstration plots followed recommended guidelines. Percent pest and disease incidence and grain yields were recorded. To promote the demonstrated technologies, the Zonal Agricultural Research Station (ZARS) and Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK), in collaboration with developmental departments, NGOs, and mass media, organized extension activities including on-campus and off-campus training, group discussions, farmers-scientist interactions, and dissemination of literature. Pest and disease surveillance was conducted through rapid field surveys, and information was communicated via All India Radio, Doordarshan, and print media.

Results and Discussion

The seed yield and economic performance of chickpea under both farmers' practices and improved technology demonstrations are presented in Tables 1 and2. During 2022-23, productivity under FLD plots ranged from 1569 to 1903 kg ha⁻¹, with a mean yield of 1691 kg ha⁻¹, while in 2023-24 it ranged from 1539 to 1879 kg ha⁻¹, with a mean of 1716 kg ha⁻¹. In comparison, the farmers' practice plots yielded 1343-1648 kg ha⁻¹ (mean 1423 kg ha⁻¹) in 2022-23 and 1353-1613 kg ha⁻¹ (mean 1469 kg ha⁻¹) in 2023-24. The percent yield increase of improved technologies over farmers' practices ranged from 11.27 to 21.80% in 2022-23 and 12.97 to 19.28% in 2023-24, with mean increases of 18.83% and 16.81%, respectively. On average, the FLD plots recorded a 17.82% higher yield compared to farmers' practices, indicating a significant improvement in chickpea productivity with the adoption of improved crop management practices (Ramesh et al., 2016) [11] . www.extensionjournal.com [5] , Samui et al. (2000) [12] , Singh et al.

(2016) [17] , and Singh et al. (2014) [19] observed that adoption of integrated pest management (IPM) led to higher yields, reduced pod damage, and improved benefit-cost ratios in pulses. Seed treatment with plant growthpromoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) and Rhizobium also contributed to enhanced productivity (Gundappagol, 2006) [7] . Application of recommended doses of fertilizers (RDF) along with zinc, use of wilt-resistant varieties, and seed treatment with Trichoderma significantly improved chickpea growth and yield (Verma et al., 2004) [23] . Similar benefits were reported for black gram through adoption of resistant varieties, seed treatment, and timely weeding (Tomar et al., 2009) [22] . Raj et al. (2013) [10] highlighted that integrated crop management practices, including proper crop rotation, land preparation, and improved varieties, substantially increased yields compared to farmers' practices. FLD-based adoption of recommended fertilizers and micronutrients enhanced pulse yields by 8-12% and 10%, respectively, compared to traditional practices (Samui et al., 2000 [13] ). Weeding and irrigation at critical growth stages further increased chickpea yields by 11.5% over farmers' practices (Sharma et al., 2011) [14] . Across studies, higher benefit-cost ratios were consistently observed under improved practices (Singh et al., 2014 [18] ; Anuratha et al., 2019 [4; . 25-43]), particularly when IPM (pheromone traps, ovicidal chemicals, neem-based sprays, and contact insecticides) was integrated with improved crop management technologies. Productivity and economic returns of maize, paddy, and pigeonpea under improved technologies were consistently higher than those under farmers' practices (local checks), with greater gross returns, net returns, and benefit-cost ratios (Singh et al., 2014 [19] ; Sreelakshmi et al., 2004 [18, 20]. [8] . This participatory approach has strengthened collaborations among farmer groups, ZARS, and KVK scientists, enhancing farmers' access to up-to-date information and technologies, thereby boosting crop www.extensionjournal.com productivity.

Conclusion

Field-level demonstrations provide an opportunity to showcase the productivity potential and profitability of the latest technologies under natural farming conditions. The Front Line Demonstrations (FLDs) in chickpea not only highlighted the benefits of improved practices over existing farmers' methods but also created awareness and motivated other farmers to adopt suitable production technologies. On average, the adoption of improved production technologies in demonstrated plots increased chickpea yield to 1703 kg ha⁻¹ and net returns to Rs. 57,768 ha⁻¹, with a benefit-cost (B:C) ratio of 3.41, compared to 2.66 under farmers' practices. The performance of the wilt-resistant variety BGD 111-1 can be further enhanced by consistent adoption of recommended production technologies. These findings underscore the need for wider dissemination of improved production technologies through effective extension methods, such as training programs and field demonstrations. Farmers should be encouraged to adopt recommended agronomic practices to enhance chickpea productivity and economic returns under rainfed conditions.

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