A review on applications of cellulose and cellulose derivatives in food packaging

Introduction

The rise of biodegradable food packaging materials has gained significant attention due to the environmental damage caused by non-biodegradable plastic packaging (Moshood et al., 2022) [22] . Natural biopolymers are interesting materials for food packaging. Recently, many studies have concentrated on biodegradable polymers, especially polysaccharides and proteins. These materials are notable for their good biodegradability, compatibility with living organisms, safety, and easy availability Natural polysaccharides like cellulose are increasingly in demand because of their strong mechanical properties, biodegradability, and accessibility (Cabanas-Romero et al., 2020) [5] . Cellulose is one of the most abundant organic polymers on Earth. It is the primary structural component of plant and microbial cell walls. Cellulose provides the mechanical strength of plant cell walls. Anselme Payan, a French scientist, discovered cellulose in 1938. It is the most common renewable natural polymer. Cellulose is a polysaccharide with the chemical formula (C 6 H 10 O 5 ) n . It consists of a long chain of several hundred to thousands of connected D-glucose units. Cellulose is mainly used to produce a wide range of products, such as paper, textiles, pharmaceuticals, and insulation. It is also known as cellulose ester, fiber, paper, and cellulosic fiber. In 1890, it was used to create the first thermoplastic, celluloid (Liu et al., 2021) [19] . The most commonly used cellulose-based products are paper and paperboard. When smaller amounts of cellulose are treated under the right conditions, they can be changed into many different derivatives. These derivatives can be used to make some commercial items, such as cellophane and rayon (Rose & Palkovits, 2011) [30] . Cellulose also fulfills the dietary needs of certain animals, especially ruminants and termites.

These animals can digest cellulose thanks to symbiotic microorganisms in their gut. Some organisms produce a group of enzymes called cellulases to help break down cellulose molecules. Because humans lack cellulases, they cannot digest cellulose. As a result, cellulose serves as a hydrophilic bulking agent for feces and may help with defecation. People used cellulose in various metabolic transformations long before scientists identified and understood its polymeric nature. By identifying its polymeric structure, nitrocellulose was discovered, organosoluble cellulose acetate was created, and Schweizer's reagent-the first cellulose solvent-was created. Nanocellulose is another important subject that has shown promise in a number of different industries (Fernandes et al., 2011) [10] , (Chawla et al., 2015) [6] .

Cellulose and its derivatives 1. Cellulose Ether (CE):

It is made by etherifying cellulose hydroxyl groups with compounds like epoxides or halogenoalkanes (Seddiqi et al., 2021) [32] .

Methyl cellulose (MC): MC is a basic cellulose ether

produced from methyl chloride or dimethyl sulfate. Its structure contains H or CH₃ groups (Seddiqi et al.,

Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC): CMC forms when

cellulose reacts with monochloroacetic acid. And it is water-soluble, biodegradable, and safe. It contains H or CH₂COOH groups.

Ethyl Cellulose (EC): EC results from reacting alkali

cellulose with ethyl chloride. It has H or CH₂CH₃ groups and is not soluble in water (Rekhi & Jambhekar, 1995) [29] .

Hydroxyethyl Cellulose (HEC): HEC forms by

reacting alkali cellulose with ethylene oxide. Its structure contains H or CH₂CH₂OH groups (Ursachi et al., 2024) [36] . 6. Hydroxypropyl cellulose: Secondary OH groups are formed when reacting with 1,2-propylene oxide. The chemical structure is H or CH2CH(OH)CH3 (Aneel Kumar, 2020) [2] . 7. Cellulose ester: Cellulose ester is a thermoplastic biopolymer that is available for commercial use and is made from cellulose. In contrast to cellulose, cellulose esters dissolve easily in common solvents and melt before they break down (Furlan Sandrini et al., 2024) [12] . [25] . 10. Cellulose sulphate: The reaction can take place directly on cellulose in a heterogeneous environment or on partially substituted cellulose ethers or esters, usually in a homogeneous environment. H or SO3H are present in the chemical structure.

Food packaging is central to today's food market, with very few products sold without packaging. Good packaging cuts down on waste and ensures that the product keeps its quality throughout its shelf life. Packaging has four key roles: confinement, protection, convenience, and communication (Farrell et al., 2024) [9] . Protection is often seen as the most important role of packaging. It keeps the contents safe from outside factors like water, odours, water vapour, gases, dust, micro-organisms, vibrations, shocks, and pressure (Marsh & Bugusu, 2007) [20] . Most foods depend on their packaging for preservation. For instance, aseptically packed milk and fruit juices in paperboard cartons remain sterile only as long as the package protects them. As mentioned before, packaging needs to be strong, attractive, affordable, and safe (Singh & Singh, 2005) [35] . It improves the look of the products and makes them more appealing for marketing. Packaging also offers convenience for users. The labels provide important details, including production and expiry dates, nutritional information, and manufacturer details. Additionally, some packages may include special features like anti-theft devices. Proper packaging helps organize, group, and store products correctly.

Scope: Market distribution of packaging materials

The market distribution of various food packaging materials, according to (Muller et al., 2017) [23] (2017) is depicted in figure 1. Paper and board hold the largest share at 34%, followed by stiff plastic at 27%, glass at 11%, and flexible plastic at 10%. The rest includes beverage cartons at 6%, various metals at 9%, and other materials at 3%. The high use of paper-based and plastic materials comes from their low cost, versatility, and suitability for food preservation. However, growing environmental concerns are leading to a move toward more sustainable options. [33] .

Modern food packaging has many practical features that support safety, quality, and sustainability. Key traits include antibacterial and antioxidant properties that help prevent spoilage, moisture resistance, and effective barriers that protect against environmental factors. Probiotics and bioactive components also promote health, while biodegradable, non-toxic, and biocompatible materials tackle environmental issues. Longer shelf life, costeffectiveness, easy product identification, and convenient transportation all enhance packing efficiency and marketability. Depicted in fig 2. [27] Fabrication methods for cellulose-based food packaging 1. Solvent casting is a common method for making biopolymer films in labs and on pilot scales. The process includes three main steps: (i) dissolving the biopolymer in a suitable solvent, (ii) placing the solution into a mold or on a Teflon-coated glass plate, and (iii) drying the solution to help the solvent evaporate. Unlike melt-processing, this method relies on the solubility of the polymer instead of heat (Flórez et al., 2023) [11] . Drying tools like hot air ovens, tray dryers, vacuum dryers, and microwave ovens help remove the solvent quickly and make it easier to take the film off the mold surface. 2. Layer-by-layer assembly (LBL) is a flexible way to make films and coatings that needs only a little equipment and space. This method lets you build multiple layers, each offering its own advantages and features. It shows good functional, barrier, and physicochemical properties. Several studies have been done on the LBL approach (S. Zhang et al., 2021) [44] . 3. Extrusion is a common industrial method for processing polymers, including biopolymers, due to its ability to alter material structure and improve physical and chemical properties. The process usually includes three main areas: (i) the feeding zone, (ii) the kneading zone, and (iii) the heating zone, which is located near the machine's exit (Hyvärinen et al., 2020) [16] . First, filmforming components are placed in the feeding zone and compressed with air. This method is often called a dry process because it requires very little water or solvents.

Application of Cellulose as coating agent for food packaging

Paper is often used for food packaging because it has high mechanical strength and breaks down easily. However, paper's use is limited because it strongly attracts water and oil. Paper has a porous structure made of plant fibers, which creates capillary phenomena. This leads to poor greaseproofing, air permeability, and moisture resistance in paper products. Surface coating method has several benefits compared to wet-end forming, making it more suitable for commercial manufacturing. These benefits include better filler retention, reduced production costs, and a lower risk when scaling up. Consequently, it has become a popular option for enhancing the functional and mechanical properties of cellulosic paper. Paper packaging made of cellulose, including paper boards, paper bags, and paper cartons, has great potential in the packaging industry due to its biodegradability, flexibility, and renewability (Semple et al., 2022) [33] . Polymers are commonly used to enhance the strength and barrier properties of the original paper in order to correct its flaws. To enhance the physical characteristics of paper coatings, certain synthetic polymers were used, including waxes, fluorocarbons, polyethylene, and polyvinyl chloride. However, this led to a loss in biodegradability and recyclability. A more eco-friendly approach to the problems related to porous cellulose-based materials is to coat them with bio-based resources like cellulose (Yadav et al., 2024) [40] . ) [28] .

The acetylation reaction significantly reduces the moistureabsorbing properties of cellulose. This makes acetylated cellulose suitable for paper coatings and food packaging.

Researchers developed a strong, antibacterial paper by coating Kraft paper with acetylated cellulose solutions containing different amounts of cinnamaldehyde. When tested against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, the coated paper showed excellent antibacterial and antioxidant properties. Cellulosic paper is a flexible, renewable, and biodegradable material made mainly from cellulose sourced from various natural materials. It is widely used in food packaging (Yang et al., 2023) [41] . However, cellulosic paper has its limits. It has a porous structure, poor resistance to microorganisms, and low mechanical qualities. These factors make it hard to stop moisture and oxygen from getting in, which shortens the shelf life of food products. Nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) is a bio-based nanomaterial that is gaining attention in coating preparation due to its unique properties (Jin et al., 2021) [17] . Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) is homogenized under high pressure to create NFC. After that, it is used as a coating agent to improve the properties of coated paper and paper coatings. The results revealed that the paper coatings had a significant dependence on NFC concentration regarding rheological behavior. Additionally, the water retention value decreased as more NFC was added. Meanwhile, adding NFC minimized the Cobb value, improved air resistance, and increased the tensile strength of coated paper. Nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) is therefore regarded as an efficient coating agent for creating highperformance coated paper appropriate for use in food packaging. The mechanical, thermal, and barrier characteristics of porous paper substrates that were dipcoated with nanocellulose (NC) were assessed. To enhance toughness, sorbitol plasticizer was used along with a citric acid crosslinker to improve the coatings' moisture stability. Plasticized nanocellulose (NC) coatings significantly improved the barrier qualities, lowering water vapor permeability by as much as 60%. Cellulose acetate (CA) is a derivative of cellulose (Herrera et al., 2017) [15] . Coating solutions were made with ethyl acetate/ethanol, cellulose acetate, and different amounts of gallic acid (GA). It was coated onto a paper substrate one layer at a time and then dried at room temperature. When it was exposed to higher alkaline pH levels in the presence of oxygen, the label changed colour from green to yellow. This change is shown in the UV-visible spectra and occurs because of a change in the structure of GA.

Active packaging

Labuza coined the term "active packaging" in 1987 to describe packaging systems that do more than merely act as a passive barrier to outside influences. Active packaging engages with the product or its surroundings to improve quality or prolong shelf life, in contrast to intelligent packaging, which offers details about the food's condition or history. Common examples include oxygen scavengers, carbon dioxide emitters and absorbers, moisture and ethylene absorbers, ethanol emitters, flavor-releasing or absorbing systems, time-temperature indicators, and antimicrobial coatings (Labuza & Breene, 1989) [18] . [26] 2. Cellulose nanofibers birch kraft pulp aloe juice carboxymethyl cellulose 1.

Increased the tensile strength 21fold 2.

Antibacterial activities against E. coli and S. aureus 3.

Shelf life of fresh pork 4.

Increase the thermal stability and glass transition temperature (C. Zhang et al., 2021) [43] 3.

Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC

Gluconacetobacter sacchari poly(sulfobetaine methacrylate) poly(ethylene glycol)

Antimicrobial activity, moisturescavenging capacity, and UV-barrier qualities (Vilela et al., 2019) [38] 4.

Cellulose nanocrystals cellulose nanofibrils

Rice straw poplar wood Thermal stability (Rostamabadi et al., 2024) [31] 5.

Cellulose acetate bacteriophage Antimicrobial activity (Rostamabadi et al., 2024) [31] 6. cellulose nanocrystals polylactic acid (PLA green tea extract 1.

Reduction in of oxygen transmission ratio and water 2.

Optimal macroscopic mechanical behaviour 4.

Enhanced barrier properties.

(Vilarinho et al., 2021) [37] 7. cellulose nanofibrils polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) alizarin Tensile strength ,thermal stability, water colour sensitivity and contact angle (Chen et al., 2021) [7] 8.

Bacterial cellulose poly(3hydroxybutyrate)

No trace of oil permeation 2.

Resistance to folding 3. Hydrophobicity 4.

Thermal properties, (Chen et al., 2021) [7] 9. cellulose nanocrystals chitosan 1. improved thermal stability 2.

water vapor permeability 4. mechanical properties 5.

bactericidal effect 6. fungicidal activity 7.

prolong its shelf-life (Albuquerque et al., 2021) [1] 10 Cellulose Nanocrystal 1.

1-butyl-3methylimidazolium chloride 3. Anthocyanin 1. permeability to water vapor and oxygen, 2.

Resistance to solvents 3. Durability 4.

Resistance to low temperatures (Meng et al., 2020) [21] 11. cellulose nanofiber 1. zinc oxide nanorods 2.

grapefruit seed extract 1. Highly transparent 2.

Improved ultraviolet blocking 3.

Vapor barrier properties 4.

Antimicrobial and antioxidant actions (Meng et al., 2020) [21] 12. spray-dried carboxymethyl cellulose bleached bagasse polylactic acid (PLA)

Prolong mango shelf life about 3 weeks 2.

Reduce the respiratory rate and physio-chemistry parameters (Meng et al., 2020) [21] 13. cellulose nanoparticle 1.

Propolis ethanolic extract 2.

Ziziphora clinopodioides essential oil 1.

Increased the minced beef's shelf life by roughly 11 days. (Shavisi et al., 2017) [34] 13 Carboxymethyl cellulose Polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) a 1. Clove oil 2.

Increased tensile strength 3.

Reduced water vapor transmission rate 4.

Negligible oxygen transmission rate 5.

Shelf life of 12 days (Shavisi et al., 2017) [34] Intelligent packaging There is growing interest in smart food packaging that provides information on food quality and safety during storage. It also offers features for real-time quality monitoring, such as sensing, detecting, and recording changes in food. Active packaging, which contains active compounds, can improve food shelf life. This type of packaging goes beyond the basic protective features of standard packaging. It enhances the quality, safety, durability, or sensory properties of food by changing packing conditions. The materials used in smart packaging monitor the food's status or the surrounding environment and communicate information to consumers in a clear way (Azeredo & Correa, 2021) [3] . Intelligent sensor-based packaging materials can be classified by the variables they control. These include time-temperature, gas, and freshness indicators. They monitor unwanted temperature changes along the supply chain, shifts in gas composition within the food package, especially in modified atmosphere packaging, and freshness decline through changes in metabolite concentration that indicate microbial growth (Heo & Lim, 2024) [14] . This leads to alterations in the packaging.

Cellulose is an interesting and promising bio-based renewable polymer due to its availability and strong physical properties. [8] . Cellulose paper was soaked with a sol-gel chitosan solution that included ABC, which has a total anthocyanin concentration of 10 mg per 100 mL. The results showed that ABC was trapped in the polymeric indicator matrix. This did not significantly affect the samples' chemical and supermolecular structure.

In food testing, fresh pasteurized milk changed color from blue to violet rose after 48 hours of storage at 20 °C. This change was easy to see. The findings indicated that the indicator could be used to test the freshness and spoilage of milk with food-grade biomaterials. A sol-gel chitosan solution containing ABC, with a total anthocyanin concentration of 10 mg/100 mL, was used to soak cellulose paper. The analysis confirmed that ABC was successfully retained in the polymeric indicator matrix, and the samples' chemical and supermolecular structures remained unchanged. Fresh pasteurized milk showed a clear color shift from blue to violet rose during the food test after 48 hours at 20 °C. This change was obvious to the naked eye. The results suggested that the indicator could effectively check the freshness and spoilage of milk using food-grade materials (Ebrahimi Tirtashi et al., 2019a) [8] . [7] Anthocyanins of red cabbage+bacterial cellulose+polivinyl alcohol pH 1-14 Red to purple blue-gray to yellow Milk (Hailu et al., 2025) [13] freshness

Cellulose nanofibrils + polyvinyl alcohol+ alizarin pH 6-7 up to 8

Yellow to orange yellow to purple Chicken (Boonsiriwit et al., 2022) [4] Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose+ butterflypea+ anthocyanin Purple/violet to blue, green ocean Scomber scombrus (fish) [45] freshness bacterial cellulose+ pelargonidin pH3-pH10 red to blue Tilapia fillets freshness (Zheng et al., 2024) [45] UV-protection films made from renewable materials are among the most promising options for the packaging industry. The modified lignin and cellulose nanocrystals came from the Argania nutshell. The films showed maximum UV light absorption in the 450-200 nm range and performed well for food packaging. To detect and preserve shrimp in real time, researchers created a film using anthocyanin-rich purple potato extract (ANT), thymol (THY), and 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl radical (TEMPO)-oxidized bacterial cellulose (TOBC). The TOBC/THY/ANT composite film showed strong antibacterial properties, antioxidant effects, and the ability to change color based on pH. To check the film's recyclability and performance consistency, these features were tested over three reuse cycles. The results indicate that TOBC/THY/ANT holds great promise for use in commercial shrimp packaging with real-time spoilage monitoring. (Wen et al., 2021) [39] .

Conclusion

This review discusses how cellulose and its derivatives contribute to smart and active food packaging systems.

Cellulose is one of the most promising bio-based materials for making films. It is a naturally occurring, biodegradable, and readily available polymer. Cellulose films have several beneficial properties, such as probiotic, antioxidant, and antibacterial activity. These qualities make them great for food packaging. Despite these advantages, the widespread use of cellulose films in industry is still limited by their mechanical and barrier properties compared to more conventional plastic packaging materials.

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