Host preferences for oviposition by banana pseudostem weevil (Odoiporus longicollis): A comprehensive review

Introduction

Banana is a major fruit crop globally and holds the foremost position in India's annual production of 40 million tonnes (FAOSTAT, 2014) [11] . Among the weevils attacking banana, Odoiporus longicollis Olivier, the banana pseudostem weevil (BPW), is the most destructive compared with Cosmopolites sordidus and Polytus mellerborgi. This monophagous pest infests banana at multiple growth stages across tropical regions and poses severe constraints to production. Infestation during the late preflowering phase significantly affects bunch emergence and flowering (Padmanaban et al., 2001) [32] . The problem is particularly severe in southern India, especially Tamil Nadu and Kerala (Reghunath et al., 1992; Gailce Leo Justin et al., 2008) [45,14] . Oviposition punctures and larval tunneling weaken pseudostems, causing wilting, breakage, and heavy yield loss (Ravi and Palaniswami, 2002; Anitha, 2004) [43] , ranging from 10-90% depending on management practices (Prasuna et al., 2008) [39] .

Description of insect

The adult weevil is a robust insect (1.3-2.0 cm long) with coloration ranging from reddish brown to black (Singh, 1966; Dutt and Maiti, 1971) [52,9] . Adults possess elongated snouts with biting mouthparts and elbowed antennae (Shukla and Kumar, 1969) [49] . Morphometric variations occur between sexes, with females having longer rostrums and males showing denser rostral punctations (Jayasree, 1992; Janakiraman, 1998) [23,22] . Color variation from brown to black occurs with age and is not associated with sexual dimorphism (Dutt and Maiti, 1972; Gailce et al., 2008) [14,7] . Eggs are creamy white, smooth, cylindrical, and laid singly in moist regions of the pseudostem, measuring about 2-3 mm long (Jayasree, 1992; Janakiraman, 1998) [23,22] . Incubation lasts 3-5 days depending on temperature, with high viability noted across studies (Krishnan and Jayaprakas, 2016) [25] . Female fecundity varies widely; earlier studies reported 50-100 eggs per female, whereas recent investigations indicate 55-65 eggs, influenced by mating duration and physiological conditions (Krishnan et al., 2015; Justin et al., 2008) [26,14] . Pre-oviposition periods of 18-33 days and oviposition spans of 17-26 days are documented, with egg-laying favoring moist tissues and occurring during early morning and late evening hours (Padmanaban & Sundararaju, 2002) [32] . The grubs are apodous, yellowish-white, with strong dark mandibles suited for internal tunneling (Singh, 1966; Dutt and Maiti, 1972) [52,7] . Five larval instars progressively increase in size, with instar durations cumulatively spanning 25-43 days (Jayasree, 1992; Janakiraman, 1998) [23,22] . Feeding occurs continuously within leaf sheaths and true stem, with later instars consuming large amounts of pseudostem tissue (Krishnan et al., 2016) [15] . Head capsule width increases in a predictable pattern across instars, influenced by seasonal temperature regimes (Prasad and Singh, 1988) [38] . Pupation occurs inside a fibrous cocoon constructed from plant tissue. Pupae are exarate, pale yellow, and measure 17-37 mm in length; pupal duration ranges from 10 to 44 days depending on season (Dutt and Maiti, 1972; Jayasree, 1992; Janakiraman, 1998) [7,23,22] . Adult longevity varies across climatic conditions, with reported lifespans ranging from 44 days (Padmanaban & Sathiamoorthy, 2001) [33] to over 200 days under favorable conditions (Ravi & Palaniswami, 2002) [43] . Females generally live longer than males (Krishnan et al., 2016) [15] . Laboratory studies often report shorter lifespans (75-80 days), whereas field conditions with decaying pseudostems support extended survival (Jayasree, 1992) [23] . Life table studies reveal environmental temperature strongly influences development time, with faster development at 35 °C and slower at 20 °C (Krishnan et al., 2015) [16] . The species exhibits high survival in early stages and R-strategist tendencies across environmental gradients. The pest's damage results primarily from continuous boring and tunneling within the pseudostem by larvae, with adults contributing through feeding beneath leaf sheaths. Damage symptoms include pinhead-sized holes, fibrous extrusions, gummy exudation, internal tunneling, foul odor due to secondary infections, and stem breakage (Froggatt, 1928; Jayasree, 1992; Padmanaban & Sathiamoorthy, 2001) [23,33] . Severe infestation affects peduncle and bunch development, leading to shriveled fruits and substantial yield reductions. Being predominantly nocturnal, adults show negative phototropism, thigmotropism, and hydrotropism, and often display death mimicry when disturbed (Kung, 1955) [27] . Population peaks occur during monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. Adults prefer cooler, humid microenvironments and are active between 17-27 °C (Shukla & Tripathi, 1978) [48] . [15,25,1] . Resistant varieties often contain higher levels of phenols, flavonoids, tannins, and alkaloids (Siji & Nandini, 2016) [51] , contributing to antixenosis or antibiosis. In extensive evaluations of 316 accessions, all showed some susceptibility, but ornamental Musa species (Rhodochlamys group) exhibited the least infestation, indicating potential resistance sources (Padmanaban et al., 2020) [34] . Oviposition behavior is influenced by plant physical characteristics such as resistant tissues, sheath tightness, and presence of inter-sheath gaps. Chemical cues play a key role, with electrophysiological and olfactometer studies showing that pest antennal responses are heightened by synergistic interactions between male-produced volatiles and plant extracts (Prasuna et al., 2008) [39] . Seasonal factors strongly regulate oviposition, with highest activity during monsoon months when pseudostem moisture is optimal (Padmanaban et al., 2001) [33] . Monoculture systems harbor higher infestations than diversified cropping systems due to improved host detectability (Ravi & Palaniswami, 2002) [43] .

Host preference and feeding behavior

Distribution

The species is widely distributed across South and Southeast Asia, including India, Sri Lanka, China, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand (Valmayor et al., 1994) [56] . Reports trace its presence across various Indian states including Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Northeastern regions (Lefroy, 1909; Dutt & Maiti, 1970; Visalakshi et al., 1989) [57] .

Management

Management of BPW traditionally relies on chemical insecticides such as monocrotophos stem injection, pseudostem treatment, and fumigation. However, chemical methods pose environmental and health risks and often fail to reach internal feeding stages. Cultural practices including destruction of infested pseudostems, use of clean planting material, and pseudostem trapping remain integral components of IPM (Padmanaban et al., 2002) [32] . Semiochemical-based approaches, though still developing, show promise for future monitoring and control (Prasuna et al., 2008; Sahayaraj et al., 2015) [39,46] . Botanical pesticides (neem oil, Gliricidia, Lantana) and biological agents (entomopathogenic fungi) offer eco-friendly alternatives and have shown potential in reducing pest populations (Justin et al., 2008) [14] . Considering the pest's cryptic nature and extended lifespan, integrated management that combines resistant varieties, cultural sanitation, and semiochemicalbased tools offers the most sustainable long-term approach.

Conclusion

The banana pseudostem weevil, O. longicollis, remains a major constraint in banana cultivation due to its concealed larval feeding, wide host range, and strong ovipositional preference influenced by pseudostem traits. Significant variation in susceptibility among cultivars highlights the importance of host plant resistance as a sustainable management tool. Understanding the pest's biology, behaviour, and chemical ecology provides critical insights for developing semiochemical-based monitoring and integrated pest management strategies. Strengthening resistant cultivar deployment, cultural sanitation, and ecofriendly control methods will be essential for long-term suppression of this destructive pest.

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