Farmer field school approach for scaling experimental lily-based cropping systems in tidal coastal belts

Introduction

Tidal coastal belts such as the Sundarbans are characterized by high salinity, seasonal waterlogging, unstable hydrology, and recurrent tidal surges, all of which severely limit agricultural productivity and restrict diversification opportunities for smallholder farmers who depend on fragile monocropping systems [1][2][3][4]21] . Increasing salinity intrusion and soil degradation have intensified the vulnerability of traditional rice-based agriculture, creating an urgent need for climate-resilient, high-value cropping alternatives that can withstand coastal stresses [5,6] . Recent horticultural research has identified lily (Lilium spp.) as a promising crop due to its moderate salinity tolerance, high commercial value, and suitability for raised-bed production systems widely practiced in coastal environments [7,8] . Experimental trials in the Sundarbans have demonstrated that optimized lily plantation designs-especially those involving elevated beds, drainage channels, and precise spacing significantly improve bulb growth and reduce inundation-related crop losses [8] . Detailed methodological insights on such optimized designs have been documented in the work of Das (2023), who developed an experimental lily plantation model tailored to the tidal conditions of the Sundarbans, offering a replicable framework for local farmers [9] . www.extensionjournal.com Nevertheless, despite its agronomic and economic potential, lily-based cropping has not expanded widely because farmers lack training, technical support, and access to participatory platforms for experimentation and learning. The Farmer Field School (FFS) approach has gained global recognition as an effective participatory extension model that strengthens farmer knowledge, fosters adaptive management, and promotes collective decision-making in complex agro-ecosystems [10][11][12][13] . FFS methodologies have shown strong impact in improving pest management, soil fertility interventions, and climate-smart agriculture outcomes, particularly in ecologically sensitive or knowledge-deficit regions where formal extension mechanisms remain weak [14][15][16][17] . For tidal landscapes, where salinity gradients vary across short distances and cropping responses depend on micro-level field conditions, the FFS model can provide farmers with the opportunity to observe lily performance directly, compare planting strategies, adapt raised-bed designs, and evaluate economic viability through group experimentation [16][17][18] . However, the application of FFS specifically for scaling experimental lily-based cropping systems remains unexplored, creating a significant knowledge gap for coastal development planning. The present research addresses this gap by assessing whether participatory learning through FFS can enhance farmer knowledge, improve lily productivity, and increase adoption rates across tidal coastal belts. The problem statement therefore centres on the absence of an effective mechanism for disseminating lily-based innovations in these ecologically fragile areas. The objective of the research is to evaluate the feasibility and performance of lily-based systems when introduced through structured FFS-based interventions. The research tests the hypothesis that Farmer Field School participation significantly enhances farmer knowledge, improves agronomic performance of lily, and promotes wider adoption of experimental lily-based cropping systems in tidal coastal belts. Through this investigation, the research aims to provide evidence-based recommendations for policymakers, extension agencies, and coastal development programs seeking to improve livelihood resilience and ecological sustainability through crop diversification.

Materials and Methods

Materials

The research was conducted in selected tidal coastal villages of the Sundarbans region, characterized by saline soils, frequent tidal inundation, and unstable hydrological regimes that significantly influence cropping system performance [14] . The experimental fields were chosen based on soil salinity levels (6-12 dS m⁻¹), land elevation, drainage conditions, and the willingness of farmers to participate in Farmer Field School (FFS) activities. Lily bulbs (Lilium spp.) were procured from a certified horticultural supplier, ensuring uniform bulb size and disease-free planting material, consistent with recommendations for floricultural trials under coastal stress environments [7,8] . Raised-bed designs were constructed following the guidelines proposed in earlier experimental studies on lily cultivation in semitidal landscapes, including the detailed design framework developed specifically for the Sundarbans by Das (2023) [9] . Fertilizers were applied following standard horticultural practices recommended for saline-prone areas, with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium supplied in balanced proportions to counter soil nutrient depletion commonly observed in coastal belts [5,6] . Tools and training materials for FFS activities were sourced from the local agricultural extension office, supported by the principles of experiential learning and group-based experimentation described in FFS literature [10][11][12][13] . Baseline and post-intervention data collection sheets, participatory observation formats, and yield recording templates were prepared in accordance with established methodologies used in coastal agriculture and participatory research studies [14][15][16][17][18] .

Methods

A Farmer Field School (FFS) model was implemented to facilitate participatory learning and collective experimentation for scaling experimental lily-based cropping systems in tidal coastal environments. Groups of 25-30 farmers per village were enrolled following community consultations, ensuring equitable representation of landholders and sharecroppers, a strategy found effective in previous FFS programs conducted in complex agroecosystems [11][12][13] . The intervention was carried out across one full cropping season, beginning with an initial diagnostic session where farmers discussed salinity challenges, drainage limitations, and local cropping constraints, similar to participatory diagnosis approaches recommended for fragile deltaic regions [14,17] . Lily bulbs were planted on raised beds at three spacing treatments (30×30 cm, 40×30 cm, and 45×30 cm) based on experimental arrangements validated in earlier coastal floriculture research [7][8][9] . Farmers conducted weekly agroecosystem analysis (AESA) sessions, visually assessing plant growth, pest incidence, soil moisture, and tidal effects in accordance with established FFS protocols [10,12] . Data on plant height, number of leaves, days to flowering, bulb diameter, and marketable yield were collected at predefined intervals. Soil salinity was measured using a handheld EC meter at 20-day intervals to assess temporal variations under tidal influence, following procedures adopted in coastal salinity studies [1,5] . Economic evaluation included cost of cultivation, gross returns, net returns, and benefit-cost ratio, aligning with methodologies commonly applied in coastal livelihood and diversification assessments [16,19,20] . At the end of the season, pre-and post-training knowledge assessments were conducted to evaluate learning outcomes attributable to FFS participation. Adoption intent, perceived benefits, and constraints were recorded through structured interviews and focus group discussions, enabling triangulation of quantitative and qualitative insights similar to extension impact evaluation studies [11,15,18] .

Results

Crop Growth and Yield Performance

Lily growth and yield responded significantly to the different spacing treatments under tidal coastal conditions. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that plant height, bulb diameter, and marketable yield were all significantly influenced by spacing (p < 0.05), confirming that microlevel crop geometry plays a critical role in saline-tidal environments where root development and aeration are constrained [1][2][3][4] . The 40 × 30 cm spacing (T₂) produced the www.extensionjournal.com tallest plants and the highest marketable yield, followed by 45 × 30 cm (T₃), while the closest spacing of 30 × 30 cm (T₁) consistently recorded lower values, likely due to higher intra-specific competition under already stressed soil conditions [5,6] . These trends are consistent with earlier reports that lily yields increase when plant density is optimized to balance canopy cover and resource use in coastal floriculture systems [7,8] . The experimental design adopted from lily plantation work in the Sundarbans [9] functioned effectively under participatory Farmer Field School (FFS) management, with farmers themselves observing differences in vigour, bulb size, and flowering behaviour across treatments during Agro-Ecosystem Analysis (AESA) sessions [10][11][12][13] . The 40 × 30 cm spacing (T₂) recorded a significantly higher marketable yield (10.8 t•ha⁻¹) compared with the closest spacing T₁ (9.2 t•ha⁻¹), while T₃ (10.1 t•ha⁻¹) was statistically at par with T₂ for yield but slightly inferior in bulb diameter. Farmers reported that T₂ provided "adequate space for air movement and bulb expansion" while still maintaining sufficient plant population, aligning with earlier controlled experimental findings from coastal trials [7][8][9] . The superior performance of T₂ under FFS conditions thus validate the experimental lily design proposed for the Sundarbans and demonstrates its robustness when implemented through participatory, farmer-managed trials [9,14] .

To visualize the treatment differences, yield data were plotted in (Figure 1), which clearly illustrates the advantage of 40 × 30 cm spacing over the other two treatments in terms of marketable yield. Figure 1 shows the hypothesis that optimized spacing, combined with raised-bed designs, can partially offset salinity and waterlogging constraints and generate higher returns from unit area [1][2][3][7][8][9] . The results also complement previous reports that diversification into high-value horticultural crops can enhance resilience and income stability in coastal farming systems [16,19,20] .

Economic Performance and Farmer Learning Outcomes

Economic analysis indicated that the FFS-managed lily systems were financially viable across all treatments, with the 40 × 30 cm spacing (T₂) producing the highest net returns and benefit-cost (B:C) ratio (Table 2). Although the cost of cultivation varied only marginally between treatments due to similar input requirements, the higher yield in T₂ translated into appreciably greater gross and net returns. These findings corroborate earlier evidence that optimized horticultural crop geometry under salinity stress can substantially improve farm profitability in coastal zones [5-8, 16] . www.extensionjournal.com The highest B:C ratio in T₂ (2.19) underscores its suitability as a recommended spacing for scaling lily-based systems in similar tidal environments, particularly where farmers seek higher returns with limited land resources [16,19,20] . During FFS review sessions, farmers consistently ranked T₂ as "most preferable," citing a favourable balance between plant density, ease of intercultural operations, and perceived marketable quality of flowering stems and bulbs, echoing the participatory evaluation approaches advocated in FFS literature [10][11][12][13]17] . The FFS intervention also had a marked impact on farmer knowledge and adoption intent. Pre-and post-intervention knowledge scores on lily agronomy, raised-bed management, and salinity mitigation were assessed on a 25point scale. Mean knowledge scores increased from 9.4 ± 3.1 (pre-FFS) to 18.7 ± 2.8 (post-FFS), and a paired t-test revealed this improvement to be highly significant (p < 0.01), indicating substantial learning gains through experiential group-based activities [11,12,15] . These results are in line with earlier studies that reported strong positive effects of FFS on farmer decision-making and technology adoption in complex agro-ecosystems [10-13, 14, 18] .

To illustrate the magnitude of learning improvement, the mean pre-and post-FFS knowledge scores were plotted (Figure 2). Figure 2 shows a clear upward shift in knowledge levels after one season of FFS, validating the use of participatory learning methods for introducing technically demanding cropping systems such as lily in tidal coastal belts [10-13, 17, 18] . Adoption-related indicators further reinforced this trend: 76% of participating farmers expressed a firm intention to continue lily cultivation in the following season, and 42% planned to expand the area under lily, often by reallocating land from low-performing traditional crops. These responses align with earlier observations that livelihood diversification into high-value horticulture, when supported by participatory extension, can enhance resilience and income security in coastal communities [16,19,20] . Taken together, the yield, economic, and learning outcomes strongly support the research hypothesis that FFS-based participatory experimentation significantly improves agronomic performance, farmer knowledge, and adoption potential of experimental lily-based cropping systems in tidal coastal belts. www.extensionjournal.com

Discussion

The findings of this research demonstrate that experimental lily-based cropping systems, when introduced through a structured Farmer Field School (FFS) approach, have strong potential to enhance agronomic performance, farmer knowledge, and adoption behaviour in tidal coastal belts. The significant variation observed in plant height, bulb diameter, and marketable yield across spacing treatments confirms that crop geometry is a decisive factor in saline and waterlogged environments where root-zone aeration and drainage efficiency directly influence growth [1][2][3][4] . The superior performance of the 40 × 30 cm spacing (T₂), which yielded 10.8 t•ha⁻¹, aligns with earlier studies showing the importance of optimizing plant population under saline stress to improve resource utilization and minimize intraplant competition [5][6][7][8] . The experimental raised-bed lily designs recommended by Das (2023) also proved effective under farmer-managed conditions, validating the suitability of elevated planting structures for tidal agro-ecosystems where periodic inundation and salinity fluctuations restrict conventional crop production [9] . The economic analysis further highlights that lily cultivation under the optimized spacing generated higher net returns and B:C ratios, reinforcing the financial viability of highvalue horticulture in coastal environments. Similar to earlier assessments of diversification strategies in saline belts [16,19,20] , farmers in this research reported improved profitability compared to traditional rice-based systems, demonstrating that converting a portion of land to lilies can strengthen livelihood resilience. The relatively small increase in cost of cultivation across treatments suggests that yield enhancement not cost variation is the primary driver of www.extensionjournal.com economic advantage under optimized spacing, a trend welldocumented in horticultural systems exposed to environmental constraints [5][6][7] . This research also provides strong evidence of the effectiveness of the FFS model in promoting knowledge acquisition and farmer empowerment. The significant improvement in knowledge scores from pre-to post-FFS assessments indicates that experiential learning, group discussions, and weekly Agro-Ecosystem Analysis (AESA) sessions enabled farmers to understand the nuances of lily agronomy, raised-bed management, and salinity mitigation techniques [10][11][12][13] . Such learning outcomes are consistent with earlier work demonstrating that FFS interventions are particularly beneficial in ecologically fragile or knowledgedeficit regions, where conventional extension systems are unable to provide context-specific recommendations [14][15][16][17][18] . The high adoption intent observed among participants especially the intention to expand lily area in subsequent seasons further supports the argument that participatory learning models enhance both technical competence and confidence among farmers.

Importantly, the participatory nature of the FFS approach allowed farmers to directly observe the influence of spacing, soil salinity fluctuations, and crop responses within their own micro-environmental conditions. This localised experimentation helped bridge the gap between scientific recommendations and field-level decision-making, a challenge frequently reported in coastal agriculture where high spatial variability in soil salinity and drainage restricts the applicability of generalized guidelines [2,3,14,17] . Additionally, farmers' qualitative feedback suggests that the combination of raised-bed design and optimized spacing offered practical improvements in plant vigour, drainage, and bulb quality observations that are in agreement with controlled studies but gain stronger credibility when validated through farmer-led trials [7][8][9] . Overall, the integration of lily-based cropping systems with the FFS model addressed both the agronomic and institutional limitations that often deter technology adoption in tidal coastal belts. By simultaneously improving crop performance, increasing economic returns, and enhancing farmer knowledge, the intervention demonstrated a scalable pathway for horticultural diversification in vulnerable deltaic regions. The results strongly support the hypothesis that FFS-based participatory experimentation enhances the feasibility and adoption potential of experimental lily-based cropping systems, offering a promising climate-resilient livelihood strategy for coastal communities.

Conclusion

The present research demonstrates that integrating experimental lily-based cropping systems with the Farmer Field School (FFS) approach offers a highly effective pathway to strengthen agricultural resilience, productivity, and livelihood stability in tidal coastal belts.

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