Digital agriculture in India: A review of ICT interventions for sustainable farming

Introduction

India is purely a rural economy dominated by agriculture, which generates employment for 70 per cent of the country's workforce (Ministry of Statistics & Programme Implementation, 2023). Each nation established a formal agricultural development organization with the mission of advancing farming practices and extension services (Agyei and Stringer, 2021) [1] . Agriculture extension services are responsible for improving farmers' knowledge, abilities, skills and attitudes by adopting new technologies and sharing agricultural information that boosts farm productivity and promotes sustainable agriculture. The extension originated in the mid-19th century, especially in European countries. France was the first country to establish state-funded extension services in 1879, but extension services had their origin after the establishment of the Hatch Act (1887), Morrill Act (1890) and Smith-Lever Act (1914) in the USA (Gwyn E. Jones and Chris Garforth,1996) [7] . When there was the American agricultural revolution in rural America where 50 per cent of the population lived in rural areas and 30 per cent of the population relied on farming, this revolution was responsible for increasing farm productivity and allowed farmers to produce more food. First-time extension services work began when the United States Development Agency (USDA) and Land Grant University collaborated for research and offered education in agriculture. The first test for United States Extension Services began during World War I when the country's wheat production was insufficient to meet wartime demands, and this was resolved when wheat production increased to 74 million acres in 1919, more than 20 million as of 1913. Also, during the Second World War, food production in the USA increased by 38 per cent till 1944 as compared to 1938 (United States Department of Agriculture, 2014) [15] . After the independence of India, when there was not enough food production from 1947 to 1965 Indian Government came up with some initiatives like the establishment of ICAR, DARE, and other organizations. To encourage farmers to produce more food, the Green Revolution was started in the 1960s in India, which acted as a driving force for Indian agriculture. After that, there was abundant production and supply of food between 1965 to 2000. During this period, many schemes, programs and initiatives www.extensionjournal.com were started for the development of agriculture in India, such as the Community Development Programme (1952), National Extension Services (1953), Training and Visit Program (1974), High-yielding variety program, Drought Prone Area Programme, Integrated Rural Development Program, etc. In the present context, the public and private sectors currently place the greatest emphasis on agricultural research, education, and extension to boost farmer productivity, knowledge and skills and promote sustainable agriculture in India. Agriculture extension services help researchers to address farmer's needs and create innovations by bridging the gap between them. Several organizations, including ICAR, KVK, SAUs, ATMA, NAMET, EEIs, NGOs, NPOs, FPOs and various other private sectors are involved in the development of extension services in India. These organizations provide extension services to the agriculture sector to empower it by solving problems, increasing knowledge, skills, attitude and transfer of technology. Also, the main reason for the increased production of agricultural products is promoting technology in the agriculture sector which helps to increase the intelligence of farmers to operate farm activities such as extension of irrigation facilities, different types of land preparation machinery, use of high-quality seeds, different types of plant protection techniques, etc. The main reason behind the advancement of the agriculture sector in India was Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) which came into use when Jute Corporation of India designed the Financial Accounting Information System in 1971 which covered seven states of India. Modern ICTs encompass hardware, software and networking technologies with the use of computers, radio, smartphones, etc. for exchanging information between farmers which leads to the dissemination of agriculture innovations, improvement in farmer's knowledge, skills and attitude which increases the participation of farmers in different trainings and helps the researcher to work on needs of the agriculture sector.

Why Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)

Information and Communication technologies are important aspects of today's world as ICTs push globalization forward and increase digitalization in every sector or industry.

Sometimes ICT is also called Information Technology (IT), but there is a slight difference in both terms. Leavitt and Whisler (1958) [10] published their article in Harvard Business Review, where they stated that there is no single established name for the new technology, so they called it Information Technology (IT). IT is part of Information and Communication Technologies and comprises hardware, software, data storage, data governance, networking technologies, etc. whereas ICT includes a set of technological tools and resources that allow the user to create, store, share and exchange information that works together to facilitate the communication. In today's world ICT is responsible for the modernization of rural areas and improving the livelihood of rural communities. ICTs are responsible for exchanging information or knowledge with the target audience through networks, mobile devices, etc. Also, ICT is the acquisition, processing, storage and dissemination of information in the form of text, audio and picture by a microelectronic-based combination of computing and telecommunication (Karl,1961) [9] . As the technological infrastructure of India has been developing for the last three decades the role of ICTs in the country's development increasing immensely.

Tools used in ICT-

Information and communication tools are categorized into two categories-1. Traditional ICTs 2. Modern ICTs

Traditional ICTs

Very old ICTs are the technologies that were used before the introduction of modern ICT tools such as Books, posters, theatre, human interaction, radios, televisions, telephones, telegraphs, audio and films, etc. (Obayelu and Oyunlade, 2006) [13] .

Modern ICTs

Modern ICT tools consist of computers, satellites, one-onone connections, wireless phones (mobile), the internet, email, the web, internet services, video conferences, global positioning systems (GPS), electronic cameras, databases, etc.

Different types of tools used in Extension Services

ICT Tools Purpose

Computer Computers are used for the record-keeping of information related to production, transport, market, etc. It is also used for farmland assessment, automated farm equipment, farm software and access expert systems which increase the consistency and reliability of operation (Bajwa, 2020) [2] .

Telephones and Smartphones

Smartphones are the mass communication method that is used to share user-generated content such as audio, video, multimedia, etc. Smartphones and telephones are the best way to communicate information easily and effectively. Smartphones help the farmer to get real-time information regarding weather, market, transport and modern agriculture techniques and allow the farmers to share information and ask questions from extension agents.

Radio

Radio is the oldest and most popular information technology in the developing countries of the world due to its easy accessibility and affordability. Earlier it was a one-way communication tool but when new technologies are developed it becomes a good communication method for discussion, etc. In the agriculture sector farmers use radio to connect with specialists, policy makers, suppliers, weather-related information, etc. Generally, radio telecasts the program based on a demand-driven approach (Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services, GFRAS,2024) [6] .

Internet

Internet is the technology that is used to improve the communication between research institutions, extension agents and farmers. The Internet is a key agent that helps a farmer to access and share information. Internet helps to expand knowledge resources, facilitate better information access, strengthen research-extension-client system linkage, ensure gender equity in the technology transfer process, etc. www.extensionjournal.com

Social media

Social media are digital communication comprising various tools that allow people to exchange information and interact with different people worldwide irrespective of the real-time location. Social media content contains text, video, calls, multimedia, etc. Some types of social media tools are YouTube, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, telegram, etc. (Barau and Afrad, 2017) [3] Video communication Video communication is used to disseminate information to the farmers. In agriculture videos are generally used for raising awareness, farmer-to-farmer extension, training and agriculture information. Some of the video communication tools are Zoom meetings, Google Meet, etc. [14] .

Status of ICT in

Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) initiatives for agriculture in India-

Initiatives Role

Jio-Agri

Jio-Agri was launched in February 2020 by the Jio Foundation offering two cutting-edge services to the farmers i.e. Automatic weather stations (Jio Krishi IoT) and evapotranspiration -based sensor-less (Jio Krishi Pro) smart agriculture solutions.

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Jio Krishi IoT smart farm facility is also known as an automatic weather station comprised of two types of devices which is based on IoT technology-1. Jio-Kawach-Jio Kawach has 8 sensors (Tipping bucket rain gauge, temperature and humidity sensor, Solar Panel, Leaf temperature and wetness sensor, Data logger, TDR soil moisture and conductivity sensor.) which provide the facility to monitor both soil and weather.

2. Jio-Netra-Jio-Netra has 3 sensors (Solar panel, Data logger, and TDR soil moisture and conductivity sensor) which provide the facility to monitor soil health. The Agriculture Infrastructure Fund Portal was launched by the Government of India in 2020 with an announcement of Rs 1lakh crore AIF under the Atmanirbhar Bharat Package. www.extensionjournal.com

Portal

The main aim of the AIF portal is to improve post-harvesting infrastructure such as supply chain services, e-marketing platforms, warehouses, pack houses, cold chain, logistic facilities, etc. by giving loans up to two crores in collaboration with 24 commercial banks, forty cooperative banks, NABARD, etc. The fund benefits farmers, Farmer's groups (FPOs, SHGs, etc.), Agri entrepreneurs, large businessmen (FMCG players, exporters, equipment manufacturers, etc), and State agencies (APMCs, CSWC, etc). (GoI, 2020)

Kissan e-Mitra Chatbot

Kisan e-Mitra is an artificial intelligence-based chatbot which is developed by the government of India in collaboration with ITCMAARS and Microsoft in 2023. Kisan e-Mitra helps the farmers by solving their queries through technological intervention which offers real-time assistance and enhances overall user experience. This app was initially launched in five languages i.e. Hindi, English, Odiya, Tamil and Bangla so that barriers based on language can be overcome. (MoAFW, 2023)

Krishi Nivesh Portal

Krishi Nivesh Portal was launched in 2024 by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare with a vision of modernizing agriculture through technological advancement and innovation practices. The main aim of the portal is to revolutionize the agricultural investment ecosystem in India. It provides information about the wide range of government schemes and incentives that give the best opportunities for farmers, domestic and international investors to contribute to India's agricultural growth. Also, it provides special provisions and training programs to empower women in agriculture. (

Kisan Sarathi

Kisan Sarathi is an Information and Communication Technology (ICT)-enabled interface introduced by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) on its 93rd Foundation Day in 2021. The platform, available in 13 regional languages, has been conceptualized to strengthen agricultural extension by integrating local needs with a national perspective. It offers seamless, multimedia, and multi-directional connectivity, thereby enabling farmers to access updated agricultural technologies, expert knowledge, and advisory services from a wide pool of subject matter specialists. Presently, the portal has registered nearly 2.4 crore farmers and 746 institutions, covering around 3 lakh villages across India. In Himachal Pradesh alone, about 1.8 lakh farmers are actively registered on the platform, highlighting its significant outreach and utility (ICAR, 2021).

Plantix

Plantix is a mobile-based application developed by PEAT GmbH, Germany, and introduced in India in 2015. It uses artificial intelligence (AI) and image recognition to diagnose crop diseases, pests, and nutrient deficiencies from photographs uploaded by farmers. The app provides instant treatment recommendations, preventive measures, and advisory support, along with access to a digital community of experts and farmers. With over 20 million downloads globally and availability in multiple Indian languages, Plantix is widely adopted across states such as Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh, supporting major crops like rice, wheat, cotton, and vegetables (PEAT, 2015).

Kisan Suvidha App

Kisan Suvidha App was launched by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare, Government of India, in 2016 as part of the Digital India initiative. It is a multilingual mobile application designed to provide farmers with timely information on weather forecasts, market prices, input dealers, seed and fertilizer availability, pesticide use, and crop insurance. The app also offers advisories on integrated pest management, as well as information on soil health cards and government schemes. By consolidating multiple services into a single platform, Kisan Suvidha aims to strengthen decision-making and reduce information gaps among farmers across the country. The app has achieved over 1.06 million downloads since its launch (MoAFW, 2016).

Kisan Rath App

Kisan Rath App was introduced by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare in collaboration with the National Informatics Centre (NIC) in April 2020 to facilitate agri-logistics, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic (Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers' Welfare, 2020). The app connects farmers and traders with transporters by providing a national-level marketplace for hiring vehicles and tractors to move produce from farms to mandis and warehouses. It integrates details of over 5 lakh trucks and 20,000 tractors, enabling seamless movement of perishable and nonperishable commodities(Drishti IAS, 2020) [16] . Within the first week of launch, over 150,000 farmers and traders had downloaded the app, and as of April 24, 2020, there were 80,474 farmers and 70,581 traders registered. By reducing intermediaries in transportation, Kisan Rath has improved market access, reduced post-harvest losses, and ensured better price realization for farmers.

Krishi Nivesh Portal

Krishi Nivesh Portal was launched by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare, Government of India, in 2022 to promote investments and business opportunities in the agriculture sector. It acts as a one-stop platform connecting agribusiness companies, investors, startups, and farmers with government schemes, policies, and incentives. The portal provides information on sector-specific opportunities, project profiles, and guidelines for availing institutional support.

By facilitating transparency and ease of doing business, Krishi Nivesh Portal aims to attract private investment, strengthen agri-infrastructure, and generate rural employment. (Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, 2025, https://www.gktoday.in/question/which-ministry-launched-the-krishi-nivesh-portal) www.extensionjournal.com

Future trends of ICT in agriculture Internet of Things (IoT)

The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to a network of interconnected physical devices equipped with sensors, processors, and actuators that facilitate the collection, exchange, and analysis of data through the Internet as a shared platform (Miraz et al., 2015) [12] . This technology enables real-time communication and interoperability among devices, thereby enhancing automation, efficiency, and precision across diverse sectors including smart cities, healthcare, logistics, and agriculture (Ray, 2017; Tzounis et al., 2017) [29,30] . Within the agricultural domain, IoT is revolutionizing farming practices by enabling data-driven decision-making and optimizing resource utilization. Key applications include automated irrigation systems that regulate water supply based on soil moisture; sensor-based soil and nutrient monitoring systems that provide real-time fertility status; and agricultural drones used for crop health assessment, spraying, and field mapping (Wolfert et al., 2017) [32] . Furthermore, robotics and automation are being employed for precision seeding, weeding, and harvesting, while smart greenhouse systems regulate climatic parameters such as temperature, humidity, and light to ensure optimal plant growth (Gebbers & Adamchuk, 2010) [26] . In livestock farming, IoT is applied through GPSenabled tracking collars, wearable health monitoring sensors, and automated feeding systems (Kumar et al., 2019) [28] . Data analytics integrated with IoT devices also support predictive modeling for pest and disease outbreaks, yield forecasting, and climate risk assessment, thereby reducing uncertainties agricultural operations (Kamilaris et al., 2017) [27] .

The increasing adoption of IoT in agriculture is narrowing the gap between conventional farming practices and digital agriculture, thereby fostering sustainable food production, reducing resource wastage, and enhancing farmer income (United Nations, 2021). The IoT market size in agriculture was $13.61 billion in 2022 and it is expected that the market size of IoT can reach up to $33.57 billion by 2032, with a CAGR of 9.5%.

Source-Mordor Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence (AI) Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to advanced computer systems that replicate human intelligence by learning from data, recognizing patterns, solving problems, reasoning, and understanding language (Russell & Norvig, 2021) [36] . AI technologies are enabled through methods such as machine learning, computer vision, robotics, and natural language processing (Goodfellow et al., 2016) [33] . Common examples include digital voice assistants like Google Assistant, autonomous vehicles such as Tesla, and image recognition platforms (GeeksforGeeks, 2024) [5] .

In agriculture, AI has emerged as a powerful tool to modernize farming practices and improve efficiency. It enables precision farming through predictive analytics for optimal input use, AI-based disease and pest detection using image recognition, and automated harvesting systems that reduce dependence on manual labor (Kamilaris & Prenafeta-Boldú, 2018) [34] . AI-driven drones and field sensors further support crop health monitoring, yield forecasting, and soil analysis (Liakos et al., 2018) [35] . Moreover, AI facilitates www.extensionjournal.com sustainable farming by promoting climate-smart decisions, resource optimization, and eco-friendly practices (Sharma et al., 2020) [37] . These advancements not only enhance productivity but also strengthen food security and farmer incomes.

Advanced Analytics

Advanced Analytics is a collection of data analytics techniques such as machine learning and modelling used by different organizations to improve their decision-making. This technique is used for both predictive and prescriptive analysis i.e. predict future outcomes and future course of action. Some of the techniques used in advanced analytics are predictive modeling, data mining, sentiment analysis, cluster analysis, cohort analysis, data visualization, etc.

Advanced analytics helps in different ways in the agriculture sector such as enhanced decision-making, precision farming integration, improved supply chain efficiency, yield prediction, field analytics, etc. A report of Data bridge market research, Data analytics in the agriculture market size was US$ 1.

Conclusion

This study provides an all-inclusive aspect of how Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) have significantly transformed the agricultural extension services in India, helping bridge the gap between farmers, researchers, and policy-makers. The integration of ICT tools such as computers, smartphones, radios, and the internet has revolutionized the way agricultural knowledge and innovations are disseminated, ultimately enhancing farm productivity, sustainability, and farmer empowerment.

Various government initiatives, such as the Digital Agriculture Mission and Kisan Call Centres, alongside private sector contributions, have facilitated access to vital agricultural information and services. Despite these advancements, challenges persist, including limited digital literacy, inadequate infrastructure in rural areas, and the difficulty of localizing content to meet diverse needs. Addressing these barriers is crucial to maximizing the potential of ICTs in agricultural extension and ensuring that farmers, particularly in remote areas, fully benefit from technological advancements. The future of ICT in agriculture looks promising with emerging technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence (AI), and drones, all of which offer significant opportunities to further modernize farming practices, improve decisionmaking, and enhance crop management. Moving forward, it is essential to focus on enhancing human resource development, improving ICT infrastructure, and promoting the digital literacy of farmers. The successful integration of ICTs into India's agricultural extension system will not only bolster the productivity and knowledge of farmers but also contribute to the sustainable development of agriculture, ensuring food security and improved livelihoods for rural communities. www.extensionjournal.com throughout the research. We appreciate the constructive feedback from peers and reviewers that enriched this work. Lastly, heartfelt thanks to AdiShakti Kamaksha and our families for their constant encouragement and support.

Acknowledgement

AcknowledgementThe authors express their sincere gratitude to Dr. Rajneesh and Dr. Dhirender of Dr. YSPUHF Nauni for their valuable time and insights. We also thank Shubhangini Jasta, and Nikhil Thakur for their support in this study. Special thanks to the Department of Social Sciences, Dr. YSPUHF Nauni, for providing the necessary resources and guidance

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