Evaluation of Sulphur Sources on Yield, Economics, and Apparent Nutrient Recovery in Groundnut Crop under the Mid-Central Table Land Zone of Odisha

Introduction

Oilseeds constitute an essential component of the human diet, next only to starch and protein.

In the Indian economy, oilseeds account for about 15% of the gross cropped area and contribute approximately 5% to the gross national product and 7% to global edible-oil consumption (Solaimalai et al., 2022). Among edible oilseed crops, groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is one of the most important, belonging to the family Fabaceae. Because of its high oil content, groundnut is regarded both as a grain legume and an oilseed crop. It is a heavy feeder and can be cultivated in a wide range of soils. Groundnut seeds contain about 50% oil, 25-30% protein, 20% carbohydrates, and 5% fibre and ash, making it a rich source of nutrition (Narayan et al., 2023) [12] . It is also an excellent source of vitamins E, K and B, along with thiamine and niacin, which are less abundant in cereals (Kumari et al., 2024) [6] . The intensification of agriculture, continuous use of straight fertilizers, and increasing nutrient demand of high-yielding crops have accentuated the need for managing secondary and micronutrients, which are now emerging as major constraints to sustaining soil fertility and productivity (Management of Plant Nutrients, 2024). Globally, the major groundnutproducing countries include India, China, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Myanmar, and the United States, which together account for nearly 69% of the total cultivated area (18.9 million ha) and 70% of global production (17.8 million t) (Gautam, 2025) [2] . India ranks first in both area (~7.5 million ha) and production (~6 million t annually) of groundnut. Sulphur (S) is a vital plant nutrient, being an essential constituent of proteins and playing a key role in oil synthesis. Its requirement is particularly critical in groundnut, which is rich in both oil and protein (Chahal et al., 2024) [1] . Supplementation with sulphur enhances photosynthetic activity and improves haulm and pod yield (Monika et al., 2024; Nayak et al., 2023) [10,13] . Sulphur also contributes to the formation of glucosides or glucosinolates, which upon hydrolysis promote oil accumulation in oilseed crops. In proteins or polypeptides, sulphur facilitates the formation of disulphide bonds, thus stabilizing molecular structure (Narayan et al., 2023) [12] . Sulphur deficiency has become increasingly widespread in Indian soils-especially in coarse-textured alluvial soils, red and lateritic soils, leached acidic soils, and soils with low organic-matter content. This deficiency is largely attributed to reduced atmospheric S inputs, replacement of single super phosphate (SSP) by diammonium phosphate (DAP), declining organic-matter levels, inadequate use of organic manures, higher crop removal under intensive cultivation, and sulphur adsorption in acidic soils (Kumar et al., 2019; Kundu et al., 2020) [5,7] . Recent research indicates that integrated S-management through combined use of soil and foliar sulphur sources significantly improves oil content, nutrient-use efficiency, and profitability of groundnut under Indian conditions (Kolape et al., 2024; The Importance of Sulphur in Oilseed Production, 2025).

Materials and Methods

The field experiment was conducted during the kharif season of 2021 at the Regional Research and Technology Transfer Station (OUAT), Mahisapat, Dhenkanal district, Odisha. The experimental site is located at 20°37′ N latitude and 85°36′ E longitude with an altitude of 328 feet above mean sea level. The soil of the experimental field was sandy loam in texture, strongly acidic in reaction (pH 5.5), and had a soluble salt content of 0.029 dS m⁻¹. The soil was medium in organic carbon (5.9 g kg⁻¹), KMnO₄-extractable nitrogen (260 kg ha⁻¹), and NH₄OAc-extractable potassium (193 kg ha⁻¹), but low in Bray's-I phosphorus (11.8 kg ha⁻¹) and CaCl₂-extractable sulphur (14 kg ha⁻¹).

The experiment was laid out in a Randomized Block Design (RBD) with seven treatments and three replications. The treatment details were as follows:T₁ -Control, T₂ -Standard dose (STD), T₃ -STD (NPK) + Elemental sulphur @ 40 kg S ha⁻¹, T₄ -STD (NK) + Single Super Phosphate (SSP) @ 40 kg S ha⁻¹, T₅ -STD (NPK) + Gypsum @ 40 kg S ha⁻¹, T₆ -STD (NPK) + Sulphur (liquid formulation) sprayed @ 0.5% at 15-20 DAS, T₇ -STD (K) + Ammonium phosphate sulphate @ 20 kg S ha⁻¹ + Sulphur (liquid formulation) sprayed @ 0.5%. Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) was sown during the first week of June following the recommended package of practices. The crop received a soil test-based fertilizer dose of N-P₂O₅-K₂O @ 25-50-40 kg ha⁻¹ through urea, DAP, and MOP. Fifty percent of nitrogen and the full dose of phosphorus and potassium were applied as a basal dose at the time of sowing, while the remaining 50% nitrogen was top-dressed during the first weeding and hoeing operation. Hand weeding, hoeing, and thinning were carried out within 20 days after sowing. Plant protection measures were undertaken as and when required to maintain a healthy crop stand. Statistical analysis of the data was carried out following the procedures described by Gomez and Gomez (1984).

Results and Discussion

Combined Effect of Ammonium Phosphate Sulphate and Liquid Sulphur on Growth and Yield Attributes of Groundnut The combined application of ammonium phosphate sulphate (APS) and liquid sulphur (LS) significantly influenced growth and yield attributes of groundnut (Table 1). The treatment T₇ [STD (K) + APS @ 20 kg S ha⁻¹ + LS spray @ 0.5% twice before and after flowering] recorded the highest plant height (48.2 cm), growth rate (5.3 mm day⁻¹), number of branches per plant (9.9), and number of pods per plant (21). This was followed by T₅ [STD (NPK) + Gypsum @ 40 kg S ha⁻¹], which recorded a plant height of 38.6 cm, growth rate of 4.3 mm day⁻¹, 8.3 branches per plant, and 19 pods per plant. The superior performance of T₇ may be attributed to APS, a multi-nutrient fertilizer containing N (20%), P (20%), and S (13%), which supplies all essential nutrients in a balanced manner when applied as basal. This ensures adequate nutrient availability throughout the crop growth stages, particularly during flowering and pod development. The subsequent foliar application of LS effectively met the crop's late-stage sulphur requirements, enhancing growth and pod development. Similar results were reported by Prusty et al. (2020) [16] , Perumal et al. (2019) [15] , and Rao et al. (2013) [17] , who observed that different sulphur sources significantly improved growth and yield traits in oilseed crops.

Combined Effect on Yield and Economics

Treatment T₇ produced the highest pod yield (22.87 q ha⁻¹), registering a yield advantage of 41% over the standard dose (STD) and 17% over T₅, which recorded 19.61 q ha⁻¹. The highest shelling percentage (69.2%) was also noted in T₇ compared to 64.6% in T₅. The increase in pod yield and shelling percentage could be attributed to higher photosynthetic activity and nutrient uptake, which improved pod filling and kernel development. These findings are in agreement with Hamakareem et al. (2016) [3] and Parmar et al. (2018) [14] . Balanced and judicious application of sulphur through APS (as basal) and LS (as foliar spray at 15 DAS) ensured adequate S supply throughout the crop growth stages. This integrated approach prevented sulphur deficiency and improved nutrient balance, resulting in enhanced yield and profitability compared to other sources such as gypsum. Similar findings were reported by Najar et al. (2011) [11] and Singh et al. (2020) [18] , who highlighted the role of sulphur in promoting flowering, nodulation, and oil quality in groundnut. The maximum benefit-cost ratio (2.65) was obtained in T₇, followed by T₅ (2.33), while the control recorded the lowest value (1.79). The B:C ratio among treatments followed the order: APS + LS > Elemental S > SSP > Gypsum > LS > Control.

Effect on Nitrogen Gain and Apparent Nutrient Recovery

Sulphur supplementation markedly improved apparent nutrient recovery and biological nitrogen fixation in groundnut (Table 2). The extra nitrogen gain ranged from 12.8 to 31.5 kg ha⁻¹, with the highest gain (31.5 kg ha⁻¹) recorded under T₇, followed by T₃ (Elemental S @ 40 kg ha⁻¹) with 30.3 kg ha⁻¹. This enhancement may be attributed to the synergistic effect of sulphur in promoting nodulation and N₂ fixation. Apparent recovery of phosphorus was also highest under T₇ (53.5%), followed by T₃ (47.6%), indicating better utilization of applied P due to improved root growth and enzymatic activity. Similarly, apparent recovery of potassium and sulphur in pods was maximum under T₇ (31.5% and 75%, respectively), followed by T₅ (30.3% and 67.7%). These results corroborate the findings of Jat et al. (2010), who reported progressive improvement in apparent recovery with sulphur application across oilseed crops.

Conclusion

From the present investigation, the following conclusions were drawn: Among different sulphur sources, ammonium phosphate sulphate (APS) proved most effective, followed by elemental sulphur and single super phosphate (SSP) as solid fertilizers. Liquid sulphur (LS) also showed potential as a foliar supplement under stress or adverse conditions. Application of APS @ 20 kg S ha⁻¹ as basal along with a foliar spray of LS @ 0.5% at

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