Microclimate modification through green shade nets enhances growth, yield, and water productivity of Chrysanthemum indicum L. under semi-tropical conditions

Introduction

Chrysanthemum is one of the most commercially important ornamental crops, second only to roses in the global cut flower trade (Wang et al., 2019; Pan et al., 2025) [20,15] . The genus Chrysanthemum is a dicot plant of the Compositae family consisting of approximately 200 species. Chrysanthemum indicum L. (Syn. Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat) is extensively cultivated in India and across the world because of its wide use as an ornamental, the popular chrysanthemum flower extract as a nutraceutical, and source of a variety of bioactive compounds used in traditional medicine preparations (Kentelky et al., 2021) [9] . This plant species produces medicinally important flavonoids, essential oils, and other important therapeutic compounds. Thus, Chrysanthemum has been the subject of considerable interest in phytochemical and pharmacological studies (Liang et al., 2007) [11] . Chrysanthemum cultivation covers a total area of about 15,000 hectares in India and is concentrated in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Maharashtra, and Delhi. It is a highly profitable crop for small and marginal farmers (Pathania et al., 2024) [15] . The world chrysanthemum exports from China have been increasing rapidly in recent years, with substantial growth from 2015 to 2024, as reported by a recent market report (Pan et al., 2025) [15] . China is the leading exporter of cut chrysanthemum and medicinal chrysanthemum, which can have a direct impact on the global supply and influence the competitive landscape for other countries involved in chrysanthemum production and export. Chrysanthemum cultivation, particularly in the open fields in semi-tropical regions of Karnataka and other areas with similar agroclimatic conditions, encounters a variety of environmental factors that can impede production and affect profitability. These environmental factors that pose challenges for open field cultivation include excessive solar radiation and high temperature stress, especially during pre-monsoon and postmonsoon seasons, erratic moisture supply and availability, and high evapotranspiration. High-temperature stress, particularly during the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon periods, can cause physiological stress on plants, leading to reduced photosynthesis, hastened senescence, increased flower drop, and consequently, lower yield and poor quality (Kumari et al., 2023) [10] . Furthermore, these conditions also result in increased transpiration, reduced relative humidity, and the potential for heat stress, which collectively reduce plant vigor and marketable yield (Yadav et al., 2023) [21] . In Karnataka, maximum temperatures often exceed 32 °C during the flowering and fruiting stages, while relative humidity can fall below 40% during dry spells, both of which are far from ideal for the growth of chrysanthemums. One of the strategies to address these issues is the adoption of protected cultivation practices such as the use of shade net systems. Shade nets provide a practical and cost-effective solution for creating a more favorable microclimate for plant growth while moderating the adverse effects of extreme environmental conditions. Shade nets work by intercepting and diffusing a fraction of the incident solar radiation, thereby reducing the radiant heat load on the plants, decreasing canopy temperature, lowering water stress, and overall creating a more conducive environment for growth and development (Stamps, 2009; Díaz-Pérez, 2013) [19,1] . In comparison to conventional greenhouses, shade net structures present numerous benefits, including a lower initial investment cost, ease of installation and maintenance, better air circulation, and a lower disease incidence compared to completely enclosed systems (Singh and Sharma, 2024) [18] . A recent review article published in 2024 has highlighted that shade net technology has become very popular among vegetable growers for production in bright, sunny, hostile, and summery habitats by ameliorating the crop microenvironment, increasing plant growth, reducing plant diseases and physiological disorders, and extending the harvesting period (Kabir et al., 2024) [7] . Furthermore, the agriculture nets market size has been observed to reach USD 10.6 billion in 2024 and is anticipated to register a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.4% to hit USD 17.9 billion by 2034 (Future Market Insights, 2025) [3] . In this context, the use of photoselective shade nets has emerged as an innovative technique in the realm of protected cultivation. Photoselective shade nets are distinct from conventional nets in that they include chromatic pigments, light dispersive, and reflective components within the netting material, intended to filter specific spectral components of solar radiation while converting direct light into diffused light (Shahak et al., 2008; Ilić et al., 2017) [16,5] . The responses of ornamentals to colored shade nets have been found to be significantly different from those observed under commonly used black nets of the same shading coefficient, and these effects can be ascribed to their influence on vegetative vigor, plant dwarfing, branching, leaf variegation, and changes in the timing of flowering (Oren-Shamir et al., 2001; Stamps, 2009) [14,19] . In a study published in 2024 on the effects of planting dates and fertilizer management on the growth, yield, and soil health of chrysanthemum (Pathania et al., 2024) [15] , the authors reported that appropriate planting dates combined with adequate fertilization improved chrysanthemum plant height (79.44 cm), flower diameter (7.83 cm), vase life (14.90 days), and soil health parameters. A review published in April 2025 on the effect of temperature on edible chrysanthemum growth and yield has shown that moderate day/night temperature of around 25/20 °C promoted the optimal growth with the highest yield and supported the maximum net photosynthetic rate, while the maximum water use efficiency was observed at cooler temperatures (Huang et al., 2025) [4] . Studies on the cultivation of chrysanthemum under shade nets have reported promising findings from different locations. In a study in Brazil, the use of shade net cultivation improved cut flower stem length, flower diameter, and vase life compared to open field production (Fornaciari et al., 2020) [2] . In a study on chrysanthemum grown under shade nets in the Northwest Himalayan mid hills of India, the authors reported that chrysanthemum cultivars under shade net exhibited better growth and prolonged the flowering period than the plants grown in the open (Singh et al., 2017) [17] . The results of a study on the effects of colored shade nets on water use efficiency and irrigation requirements of chrysanthemum revealed that a green shade net improved water use efficiency by around 28% and reduced irrigation requirement without significant yield loss (Manjunatha et al., 2023) [12] . In another study on the effects of different levels of white, blue, and green shade nets on chrysanthemum growth and yield in the Netherlands, the authors reported that shade nets lower the extreme temperatures during the day and night, reducing plant water stress. Shade nets also increase the concentrations of photosynthetic pigments and result in an overall improvement in plant vigor (Ilić and Fallik, 2017) [5] . On the other hand, there are certain limitations in the existing literature that need to be addressed. First, most of the previous studies have been conducted on Chrysanthemum morifolium cultivars rather than C. indicum, which is gaining importance in the production of traditional medicine and specialty markets. Second, the research has primarily been focused on temperate or high-altitude areas, where the temperature and radiation are not the same as those found in low-elevation tropical and semitropical conditions. Third, limited studies have been done to quantify water use efficiency under shade nets using precise irrigation management and monitoring systems. Fourth, little information is available on the specific microclimate alterations caused by shade nets and their direct link with growth and yield parameters in chrysanthemum cultivation. The study site in Bengaluru, located at an elevation of about 920 meters, is in southern Karnataka, experiences a typical semitropical climate with distinct seasonal changes. This makes the site particularly relevant and suitable for the proposed study on the effects of shade nets on Chrysanthemum indicum. The region endures moderate temperatures, with occasional heat stress during the summer months, receives variable rainfall distribution, and faces water scarcity, which calls for the need for better irrigation efficiency. These local conditions, coupled with the existing research gaps, necessitate this investigation. The primary objective of this research was to evaluate the performance of Chrysanthemum indicum under 50% green shade net and an open cultivation system during the October 2024 to February 2025 growing season. The specific aims of the study were as follows: (1) to determine the differences in vegetative growth parameters including plant height, branching patterns, and leaf area development between shade net and open field systems; (2) to assess the modifications in the microclimate in terms of temperature, relative humidity, and light intensity under the shade net; (3) to evaluate the flower production, yield components, and quality attributes under both cultivation systems; and (4) to determine the irrigation water requirement and calculate water use efficiency to determine the sustainability and water conservation potential of shade net cultivation for chrysanthemum production in semi-tropical climates.

Materials and Methods

Experimental Site and Climatic Characterization

A field experiment was carried out at the research farm of the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Reva University, Bengaluru, Karnataka (13.02°N latitude, 77.60°E longitude and 920 m above mean sea level), during October 2024-February 2025, which coincides with the best chrysanthemum growing and flowering time for the region. The area has a semi-tropical climate with moderate temperature, well-defined wet and dry seasons, and uneven distribution of rainfall. The long-term average rainfall for the location is 970 mm per year, with average maximum temperature between 28 °C and 35 °C and average minimum temperature between 15 °C and 22 °C during the time of experiment. A soil sample was collected from different spots of the field at 0-30 cm depth and analyzed for different chemical properties in the soil laboratory, following standard methods given by Jackson (1973) [6] . The soil texture was analyzed by the hydrometer method, and it was found to be red sandy loam with sand, silt, and clay in 65, 20 and 15% proportion, respectively. Soil pH measured by a glass electrode pH meter in 1: 2.5 soil-water suspension was 6.5, while the organic carbon (Walkley-Black method) was 0.65% and categorized as medium in the soil. The available nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) (alkaline permanganate method, Olsen method and neutral normal ammonium acetate extraction respectively) were 245, 32, and 198 kg ha⁻¹, respectively, in the soil and categorized as medium. The soil was well-drained with bulk density (BD) and field capacity (FC) of 1.42 g cm⁻³ and about 22% (v/v), respectively.

Experimental Design and Treatment Details

Experimental design: The experiment was based on the Randomized Block Design (RBD) with two treatments and six replications, in which total twelve plots were available. The treatments were T1: Cultivation under 50% green shade net and T2: Conventional open cultivation as the control treatment. Each plot consisted of one raised bed with a size of 4 m × 2 m, i.e. a plot size of 8 m2. The raised beds were constructed with a height of 15 cm above the ground level to provide good drainage condition. Drainage is important to avoid water logging during excessive rainfalls or irrigation. Shade net used was prepared from HDPE with UV stabilization and knitted type of shade net was used with a shade percentage of 50%. The selected shade net had a shade factor of 50% that means 50% of the solar radiation reaches the plants, whereas the rest is absorbed by the net. These specifications are supported by other recent studies which found that UV stabilization property in the shade net material is an emerging trend these days to provide better durability and protection under solar radiation (Agriplast, 2024) [1] . The shade net structure was supported by using GI pipes of 4-m height with horizontal wires tied at the height of 2.5 m above ground level. Shade net material was tied to the support structure using plastic cables for proper tension. Planting arrangement: The plant spacing was arranged in a rectangular system of 30 cm × 30 cm which makes the total plant population to be 111,000 plants ha⁻¹. Each plot had 10 rows with 20 cm distance between rows. The adjacent plots were separated by the buffer row of 50 cm width and one-meter wide buffer was given at the edge of the whole experimental area as shown in Figure 1.

Open filed condition

Green shade net Open filed condition AGreen shade net

Plant Material and Cultural Practices

The plant material used was Chrysanthemum indicum L., a local genotype which is well adapted to the Bengaluru agroclimatic zone, and widely grown by farmers in the study area. The propagation was done through vegetative means using the terminal cuttings of length 5-7 cm with 3-4 nodes which is the standard commercial propagation method ensuring genetic uniformity (Kentelky et al., 2021) [9] . The cuttings were induced to root by dipping the basal end in the rooting hormone having indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) at 2000 ppm concentration for 10 seconds. This treatment was found to stimulate rapid and uniform rooting in stem cuttings. The rooted cuttings were raised under nursery conditions for hardening of 10-12 days before transplanting, which was done in the first week of October 2024. Nutrient application was based on the soil test recommendations and the nutrient requirement of the crop. The basal application was done by incorporation of well-decomposed farmyard manure @ 25 t ha⁻¹ during bed preparation. An inorganic fertilizer was applied @ 100: 50:50 kg ha⁻¹ of N:P₂O₅:K₂O (Pathania et al., 2024) [15] . The complete dose of phosphorus and potassium was applied as basal, while nitrogen was applied in three equal splits at 15, 35 and 55 days after transplanting (DAT). This is to match the nutrient uptake of the crop to the nutrient supply and to reduce the nitrogen losses.

The drip irrigation systems were installed in both the treatments so as to facilitate precise water application and to measure the water applied, as per modern irrigation efficiency practices (Jin et al., 2024) [6] . The drip laterals with inline emitters of 30 cm spacing were laid on either side of each row along the bed centre, and the emitters were placed such that they were next to each plant. The frequency of irrigation was based on the crop evapotranspiration (ETc) demand calculated using the Penman-Monteith equation under local conditions. Irrigation was applied to meet about 80% of the evapotranspiration requirement to avoid excess soil moisture in the root zone. The water meters which were installed at the inlet of each treatment blocks were used to measure the total amount of irrigation water applied during the crop season. Mulching using black polyethylene of 25 microns thickness was done, which covered the soil surface. Weeds were controlled by manual weeding if necessary. Pest and disease incidence was controlled as per the principles of integrated pest management (IPM) with regular monitoring of the crops for the incidence of pests. Pinching was done at 15 DAT by removing the apical growing point to induce the axillary buds to grow into lateral branches, thereby increasing flower production. Staking was done by using bamboo poles when the plants were about 30 cm in height to support the plants from lodging.

Data Collection and Measurements 2.4.1 Microclimate Monitoring

Microclimate parameters were measured during the growing season with automatic data logger systems. Temperature and humidity sensors recorded maximum, minimum and mean air temperature and relative humidity at 50 cm height above the ground surface on an hourly basis (representing mid-canopy zone). Light intensity was measured with quantum sensors, measuring PAR (photosynthetically active radiation) in the 400-700 nm range. Sensor data were recorded automatically in data loggers and downloaded every week.

Growth and Vegetative Parameters

Measurements of vegetative growth were taken at three growth stages, namely, 60, 90 and 120 DAT. From each plot, five plants were randomly selected and tagged for identification. Height of the plant was measured using a measuring tape from the soil surface to the tip of the main stem and was recorded to the nearest centimetre. Branch number was assessed by counting all the primary and secondary branches of the main stem having a minimum length of 5 cm. Leaf area index (LAI) or ratio of leaf area to unit ground surface area, was estimated nondestructively, using a canopy analyzer that measures light interception, as per the standard procedure (Pathania et al.,

Flowering and Yield Parameters

Flowering observations were taken from first visible flower buds through to harvest maturity. At commercial harvest maturity, detailed yield assessments were made. Total flowers per plant were counted on all tagged plants. Ten flowers per plot were randomly selected for flower diameter measurements with a digital caliper. Individual flower fresh weight was determined by harvesting ten representative flowers per plot and immediately weighing on a precision balance. Yield per plant was calculated by multiplying total flowers per plant by the average flower fresh weight. Per-plant yield was multiplied by the plant population (111,000 plants ha⁻¹) to estimate yield on a perhectare basis (t ha⁻¹).

Water Use and Water Use Efficiency

The amount of total irrigation water applied to each treatment was recorded using water meters located at the inlet to the irrigation system. Total irrigation during the growing season was calculated as the sum of individual irrigations. Total irrigation amount was expressed as depth equivalent (mm) by dividing the total volume applied by the plot area. Water use efficiency (WUE) was calculated using equation 1: Irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) can be defined as the mass of flowers produced per unit volume of irrigation water applied, and its higher values mean better water use (Kazemi et al., 2019) [8] .

Statistical Analysis

All the data were statistically analyzed by analysis of variance (ANOVA) under general linear model procedure using the randomized block design. The model consisted of treatment as a fixed factor and replication as a random factor. Treatment means were separated using least significant difference (LSD) test at 5% probability when treatment effects were significant (P<0.05). Pearson correlation coefficient was also calculated to analyze the relationships among microclimate, growth, and yield parameters, and significant at 5 and 1% probability. All the analyses were performed with the help of standard statistical software (SPSS 22.0). Data are presented as treatment means with standard error (S.E m±) and LSD values. [16] and Ilic et al. (2017) [5] . A trend of higher relative humidity was also recorded during the entire experimental period in the shade net (Table 1). The mean day time relative humidity was recorded as 62.4% in the shade net, while it was 55.8% in open field, with an increase in relative humidity in the shade net treatment of 6.6%. The higher relative humidity can offer a number of physiological benefits to chrysanthemum such as minimization of transpiration water stress, increase in stomatal conductance to allow more CO2 uptake for photosynthetic activity, and prevention of flower desiccation during development. These factors also coincide with the findings of a study that states that the use of shade nets can minimize hot temperatures and reduce water needs of crops, and improving irrigation water use efficiency (Kabir et al., 2024) [7] . The photosynthetically active radiation was noted to be 965 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹ in the open field, whereas, under the 50% shade net, the PAR was 485 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹. This translates to a 49.7% reduction in PAR due to the shade net (Table 1). While this is a drastic reduction in the light intensity in the shade net treatment, this is not an issue in terms of chrysanthemum production as it was previously shown that chrysanthemum could be produced in between 30 and 50% shade (Yadav et al., 2023) [21] . The factors of lower irradiance, along with the temperature and humidity, created a more conducive environment for the physiological processes to take place and aid in the resulting growth and yield, as will be discussed below.

Results and Discussion

Vegetative Growth Performance

The application of shade net significantly increased vegetative growth parameters including plant height compared to open field conditions (Table 2). At 90 DAT, the plant height under shade net was 60.2 cm, which was 23.6% higher than the 48.7 cm recorded in open field condition (P<0.05). The greater plant height observed under the shade net can be attributed to the shade avoidance syndrome, a phenomenon where plants exhibit increased stem elongation in response to shade (Stamps, 2009) [19] . However, in this case, the moderate shade level provided by the net appears to have allowed for healthy stem elongation without leading to excessive etiolation. The taller stature of plants under shade net is also indicative of reduced heat stress and better water status, as temperature stress can limit cell expansion and consequently reduce internode elongation (Huang et al., 2025) [4] . 2). The increase in branch number is likely the result of the pinching operation, as well as the microclimate conditions created by the shade net, which may have encouraged axillary bud break and lateral shoot growth. Studies on chrysanthemum have shown that moderate shade and optimal temperature conditions can influence cytokinin to auxin ratios in plant tissues, leading to increased lateral bud activation and branching (Kentelky et al., 2021; Pathania et al., 2024) [9,15] . The higher branch number under the shade net provides more flowering sites, potentially contributing to increased flower production. Leaf area index (LAI) also showed significant improvement under shade net, with a value of 3.24 compared to 2.15 in the open field, an increase of 50.7% (Table 2). The increased LAI is a result of both higher leaf number (due to increased branching) and the greater leaf area of individual leaves under the shade net treatment. Shade-grown plants often have larger, thinner leaves with a higher specific leaf area to adapt to low radiation conditions and make the most of the light available (Stamps, 2009) [19] . The increased LAI under the shade net is especially important, as it indicates an increased photosynthetic capacity of the whole canopy. This is supported by the strong positive correlation between LAI and flower yield (r = 0.82, see Section 3.4) which underscores the functional relevance of this vegetative trait. The growth improvements under the shade net in this study are in line with results observed for various ornamental plants under photoselective nets (Oren-Shamir et al., 2001; Shahak et al., 2008) [14,16] .

Flowering and Yield Performance

Flowering and yield parameters were significantly (P<0.05) higher under shade net cultivation than under open field conditions (Table 3). The mean number of flowers per plant under shade net was 45.3 which was 52.5% (P<0.05) more than the 29.7 flowers per plant in open field. This significant increase in the number of flowers was due to an increase in the number of branches per plant (each branch with a number of flower buds) in addition to improved physiological status that promoted the initiation of flower buds and lowered bud abortion rate. It is well known that high temperature stress during reproductive stage development may lead to flower bud abortion and reduced flower set in chrysanthemum (Huang et al., 2025) [4] and the 2.4 °C reduction in temperature under shade net clearly ameliorated this stress. Flower quality attributes also recorded appreciable improvements under the shade net treatment (Table 3). The average flower diameter recorded was 5.8 cm under shade net treatment and 4.9 cm under open field condition which is an improvement of 18.4%. Similarly, individual flower fresh weight was 10.2 g under shade net treatment and 8.4 g under open field condition which is an improvement of 21.4%. Improvement in quality parameters indicated more availability of resources for flower development under the enhanced microclimate conditions. The improved relative humidity under shade net condition was an important factor for the improved cell turgor and expansion in developing flowers (Fornaciari et al., 2020; Singh et al., 2017) [2,17] . In addition, less heat stress under shade net could allow longer flower development period for the formation of larger and fully developed flowers (Fornaciari et al., 2020) [2] . The concurrent improvements in flower number and individual flower quality resulted in a significant increase in yield (Table 3). The per plant yield under shade net was 462 g, whereas, it was 249 g under open field condition, an improvement of 85.5%. On a per hectare basis, the yield was estimated to be 12.95 t ha⁻¹ and 8.60 t ha⁻¹ under shade net and open field condition, respectively, which is a 50.6% improvement in yield. The extent of the yield improvement was comparable to other reports on chrysanthemum under shade net treatment (Manjunatha et al., 2023) [12] . The economic impact of this yield gain could be substantial for the growers as the increased production can recoup the investment in shade net and provide additional revenue, especially in premium markets where high-quality flowers are in demand (Pathania et al., 2024) [15] .

Water Use Efficiency and Irrigation Requirements

Water use patterns and efficiencies also differed significantly between the two systems (Table 4). The total irrigation water used during the growing season under shade net and open field was 384.0 and 448.0 mm, respectively, with a reduction of 14.3% in irrigation requirement under shade net. The water saving under shade net over open field was mainly because of reduction in evapotranspiration under shade net, as affected by the lesser temperature, higher humidity and radiation reduction. The application of shade net significantly reduced atmospheric evaporative demand and the crop could meet the water status of the tissues under lower irrigation input. The water requirement results were consistent with a recent study, which showed that shade nets significantly reduce crop water requirements by 15-30%, with no or little negative effect on yield (Kabir et al., 2024; Manjunatha et al., 2023) [7,12] . The efficiency of water use, expressed as yield per unit irrigation water applied (WUE), showed a remarkable enhancement under shade net cultivation (Table 4). The WUE in shade net was 3.37 kg m⁻³, while the open field recorded a WUE of 1.92 kg m⁻³, indicating a significant increase of 75.5%. This dramatic improvement in WUE is primarily attributed to a synergistic reduction in irrigation requirement (-14.3%) and an upsurge in production (+50.6%) under shade net. The higher WUE under shade net implies that farmers can achieve higher production with less water under conditions of limited or costly irrigation water, enhancing not just the economic but also the environmental sustainability of chrysanthemum production. This aspect of WUE aligns with recent work on other ornamental crops, especially under deficit irrigation and protected cultivation systems (Kazemi et al., 2019; Jin et al., 2024) [8,6] .

The linkages between modified microclimate and production were further strengthened through correlation analysis (Figure 2). Flower yield had a strong positive correlation with LAI (r = 0.82, P<0.01) and branch number (r = 0.79, P<0.01), suggesting a direct pathway from vegetative vigor to reproductive output. On the other hand, a significant negative correlation was observed between yield and mean maximum temperature (r = -0.71, P<0.01), highlighting heat stress as a key yield-limiting factor under open field conditions. Thus, these correlations not only support the impact of shade net on chrysanthemum production but also provide mechanistic insights into the benefits: by alleviating temperature stress, enhancing relative humidity, and fostering vegetative growth, shade nets create a microclimate that is highly conducive for chrysanthemum flowering and yield formation.

Economic and Environmental Implications

The economic viability and agronomic rationale for employing a 50% green shade net under Bengaluru conditions for C. indicum cultivation is compelling. Although the initial capital investment in shade net infrastructure (nets, support structures, installation) is an added cost compared to open field cultivation, this cost can be amortized over the 3-5-year lifespan of UV-stabilized shade nets (Agriplast, 2024) [1] . The 50.6% yield increase directly translates to improved gross returns, especially when factoring in the premium prices that larger, high-quality flowers fetch in commercial markets. Furthermore, the 75.5% enhancement in water use efficiency offers ongoing operational cost savings through reduced irrigation needs, particularly valuable in the context of rising water costs and scarcity in many production regions (Kabir et al., 2024) [7] . The environmental sustainability benefits of shade net cultivation extend beyond water conservation. The reduced irrigation requirement (14.3% less water) also contributes to conservation of scarce water resources and reduced energy consumption for water pumping and distribution. The improved microclimate under shade nets also resulted in lower incidence of heat stress-related physiological disorders, potentially reducing the need for chemical interventions to manage stressinduced pest and disease problems. These environmental benefits align with global trends toward sustainable intensification of agricultural production, where increased productivity is achieved through ecological optimization rather than increased external inputs (Singh and Sharma, 2024) [18] .

Conclusion

Acknowledgement

AcknowledgmentsThe author gratefully acknowledges the support of the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Reva University, Bengaluru, for providing infrastructure, research facilities, and resources to conduct this study. Appreciation is extended to the technical staff for their assistance in field operations, data collection, and laboratory analyses throughout the experimental period.

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