Cow dung as bio e3- economy, employment and environment. A review

Introduction

Cow dung, an abundant, easily available and low cost bioresource, has long been integral to sustainable development by simultaneously addressing the three pillars of the E3 framework Economy, Employment, and Environment. For a very long time, it has been a part of rural life. It is commonly used as a fuel for cooking, while smoke generated from burnt cow dung used a natural mosquito repellent, and the ash left behind used as a cleansing agent. Cow dung itself used as house building material. It serves as a natural fertilizer for improving soil health and increases crop production. It contains wide variety of microorganism producing various metabolites that are beneficial to humans. Beyond these practical uses, it has a special place in culture and traditions, and even holding ritualistic and medicinal value (Gupta et al., 2016; Chaubey et al., 2022) [1,2] . In recent decades, technological advancements have expanded its applications well beyond traditional uses. It is now considered as a vital resource for renewable energy generation through biogas and compressed biogas (CBG) production, soil fertility improvement, and effective agent as pollution control. These multifaceted values, thereby redefining it from low value agricultural waste to a valuable raw material for green technologies (Sahdev et al., 2024; Ratminingsih & Jumadi, 2021) [76,36] . Economically, cow dung utilization reduces dependence on fossil fuels and chemical fertilizers that are environmentally harmful. It producing value-added outputs such as biogas for household and industrial energy need, compressed biogas (CBG) as a clean transportation fuel, biochar for soil amendment, briquettes as an alternative to coal, biogas power plants for electricity production, and organic fertilizers. These vast applications contribute for lower production costs, generate new income streams, and enhance energy security (Schott et al., 2023; Albalate-Ramírez et al., 2022) [8,9] . As published, for example, in rural areas of Bangladesh people used cowdung as fuel, compost, fish feed, biogas, and fertilizer. Sustainable Development Index (SDI) for waste management in dairy farm was 0.73, while bio-slurry waste management had a score of 0.81, showing much greater satisfaction. Biogas plants saved 8.50 kg firewood, 0.29 kg petroleum gas, and 1.67 kg chemical fertilizer per day. More than 90% households met FAO's sustainable agriculture score yelding a cost-benefit ratio of 3.34 (Shaibur et al., 2025) [2] . Cowdung through conversion to compressed biogas, organic fertilizers, and promoting of organic farming practices presents an opportunity for income generation ad environmental sustainability. Government initiatives like GOBAR-DHAN and Godhan Nyay Yojana show positive impacts for both farmer livelihoods and environment (Sahdev et al., 2024) [76] , DOI:10.46609/ijsser.2024.v09i09.034). Environmentally, if not properly managed, cow dung release harmful gases like that leads to air pollution and climate change, Instead, through anaerobic digestion, it is converted into useful resource like biogas for cooking, lighting, and generating electricity and biofertilizers for improving soil health and crop productivity. Biogas replace LPG, kerosene, gasoline, and generate power or drive pump help in reducing pollution, reliance on fossils fuels and energy scarcity (Ratminingsih & Jumadi, 2021; Shaibur et al., 2025) [36,2] . It also enriches soil fertility through organic matter and microbial populations, while cow urine supplements nitrogen and minerals, together reducing reliance on chemical inputs and supporting organic farming practices (Patra & Bharti, 2024) [35] . Moreover, dung harbors plant growth-promoting bacteria that enhance phosphate solubilization, siderophore and IAA production, antifungal activity, and crop yields, with studies confirming improved growth in pea plants (Sagar et al., 2025) [7] . Both Cow Dung and cow urine are valuable resources. It contain essential macronutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), organic matter, and microbes while cow urine in nitrogen, urea, and minerals. Both act as natural fertilizers and pesticides, fostering organic farming, reducing chemicals dependency, lowering costs, and promoting sustainable agriculture (Patra & Bharti, 2024, DOI:10.18805/BKAP696) [35] . Emerging cow dung valorization technologies such as composting, vermicomposting, pyrolysis, gasification, briquetting, and co-digestion with agricultural residues further enhance its scope of utilization. These methods not only generate valuable by-products like organic fertilizers, biochar, bioenergy, and renewable fuels but also manage waste efficiently. Innovations like calcium-enhanced UASB reactors making cowdung valorisation more efficient achieving both energy (via higher methane yields) and nutrient retention (via enhanced phosphorus capture) (Schott et al., 2023) [8] . Cowdung can be converted into biofuel by blending it with agricultural waste. This process increases its gross calorific value (from 3066 to 3600 Kcal/kg), raises volatile matter (60% to 68%), and reduces ash content (19% to 11%) making it a cleaner and sustainable alternative to fossils fuel for domestic and industrial use (Anwar et al., 2024) [13] . Community-level initiatives, such as biodigester projects in Indonesia, have showing dual ecological and economic advantages. These projects substituting LPG, reduce dependence on fossils fules and generating organic fertilizer for local agricultural practices (Damayanti et al., 2024) [12] . Beyond energy, cow dung-derived biochar help to store carbon for long term, improved soil health, and support climate resilience (Shyam et al., 2025) [14] . New approaches such as microbial fuel cells and nanoparticle synthesis further show its potential in advanced materials and renewable energy (Kushwaha et al., 2024; Selim et al., 2023) [74,15] . Overall, cow dung is a versatile source bridges traditional practice with modern innovation. It is used as as fuel, fertilizer, building material, and in cultural practices for centuries. Now, Today, it is transform into biogas, biochar, organic fertilizers, and raw material for advanced technologies like microbial fuel cells and nanomaterials. By aligning with the E3 framework, cowdung helpful in many ways by creating rural employment, ensures economic prosperity, protects the environment by reducing waste, lowering pollution, and cutting greenhouse gas emissions, carbon neutrality, and climate change mitigation, thereby establishing itself as an important foundation for the circular bio economy and promoting agriculture worldwide.

The E3 Framework for Cow Dung Valorization 2.1. Economic perspective 2.Employment opportunities 2.3. Environmental sustainability

The E3 Framework for Cow Dung Valorization focusing on Economy, Employment, and Environment highlights the multifaceted benefits of utilizing cow dung as a sustainable bioresource. Economically, cow dung can be converted into biogas, organic fertilizers and compressed biofuels, a good alternative over costly fuels. We can use organic fertilizer and enhance farmer income by using it. With heavy production (in millions of tons), valorization offers vast potential for energy generation and soil enrichment. Cow dung plays a vital role in the economic pillar of the E3 Framework, offering renewable energy and low-cost agricultural inputs. Optimization studies shows methane yield improvements of up to 26.5% with strong model accuracy (R² = 0.968) in biogas digesters (Obileke et al., 2022) [16] . Blending cow dung with agricultural biomass enhanced its calorific value (3066-3600 Kcal/kg), with this calorific value it become volatile matter with low reduced ash content, which makes it an efficient fuel alternative (Anwar et al., 2024) [13] . By increasing the consumption of Biogas we can substitute LPG, kerosene, and electricity, easing energy costs (Ratminingsih & Jumadi, 2021) [76] , while in Indonesia, it has the potential to generate 5,580 kW/day of electricity (Apriantika et al., 2022) [19] . Pilot plants further confirm its cost-effectiveness by producing both energy and nutrient-rich slurry for farming (Gedefaw, 2015) [33] . Moreover, cow dung and urine reduce reliance on chemical fertilizers through their nutrient content (Patra & Bharti, 2024) [35] , and co-composting produces humus-rich compost with economic value (Oladipo & Okon, 2018) [22] . Together, these applications highlight cow dung's economic potential in reducing fuel dependency, improving soil productivity, and supporting rural incomes. In terms of employment, proper management and processing of cow dung create rural job opportunities through schemes like GOBAR-DHAN and Godhan Nyay Yojana, while new business using cow dung can be started like cow dung based paints and numerous organic products. It encourages rural entrepreneurship and youth interest in developing new products. The E3 Framework for Cow Dung Valorization emphasizes more on its potential to generate rural employment by converting cattle waste into energy, fertilizers, medicines, pesticides, paper, composites, and eco-friendly products (Fasake & Dashora, 2021) [24] . Livestock waste recovery models in the Global South show that biogas, compost, and aquaculture feed can enhance livelihoods while addressing environmental risks (Taron et al., 2025) [25] . In India, where most of the rural population depend on livestock, cow dung valorization supports hybrid farming systems and enables income generation through manure, bioenergy, and ayurvedic products (Mandavgane & Kulkarni, 2020) [30] . Government schemes such as GOBAR-DHAN and Godhan Nyay Yojana it strengthens farmer earnings and promote organic farming (Sahdev et al., 2024) [76] . Innovative products item like cow dung-based paints also play a important role in generating rural entrepreneurship opportunities while supporting sustainability goals (Kumar & Upadhyay, 2023; Nandkumar, 2022) [28,29] . A case study of a dung-urine biorefinery reported a Sustainability Index of 0.69, confirming its social, economic, and environmental viability (Sustainable Industrial and Environmental Bioprocesses, 2020). Environmentally, Valorization reduces methane emissions, manages organic waste, and promotes renewable energy through biogas and bio-hydrogen production. It also improves soil fertility with bio-fertilizers, supports eco-friendly pest control, and enables sustainable material substitution for bricks, plastics, and other resources. Thus, the E3 approach positions cow dung as a vital contributor to sustainable development and rural prosperity. From an environmental perspective, cow dung valorization plays a dual role: mitigating pollution while enabling ecofriendly resource recovery. Unmanaged cow dung often causes air, water, and soil contamination, unpleasant odour, and disease spread (Ratminingsih & Jumadi, 2021; DOI:10.2991/ASSEHR.K.210305.012) [76] . However, when processed, it generates positive externalities, such as reducing dependence on fuelwood and fossil fuels, thereby conserving forests and lowering greenhouse gas emissions (Dikshit & Birthal, 2010) [32] . Biogas technology transforms cow dung into renewable energy while producing nutrient-rich slurry that serves as organic fertilizer, minimizing chemical inputs and improving soil health (Gedefaw, 2015) [33] . Similarly, cow dung microflora enhances soil biodiversity, nutrient cycling, and pest resistance, strengthening organic farming systems and supporting climate-resilient agriculture (Banerjee et al., 2023) [69] . Valorization methods such as anaerobic digestion, composting, pyrolysis, and co-digestion reduce methane release from open manure decomposition, contributing to climate change mitigation (Ounnar et al., 2019) [34] . These processes also provide sustainable alternatives to unsustainable disposal practices, aligning with the ecoefficiency principle of the E3 framework. Overall, cow dung valorization under the Environment pillar of E3 emphasizes waste-to-resource transformation that reduces methane emissions and environmental pollution, conserves forests and land by replacing fuelwood, enhances soil fertility and microbial health, contributes to renewable energy generation, and promotes sustainable, low-carbon rural ecosystems. Thus, cow dung, when professionally managed, becomes not an environmental liability but a key bio-resource for sustainable development (Patra & Bharti, 2024; Ratminingsih & Jumadi, 2021) [35,76] .

E3 Impacts of Cow Dung Utilization 3.1. Economic Benefits:

Cow dung valorization demonstrates significant economic potential through its applications in energy, industry, and construction. It serves as a low-cost raw material for paper, packaging, and bio-based products, reducing reliance on wood, lowering production costs, and providing eco-friendly alternatives to plastics (Sahdev et al., 2024) [76] . Recent studies also highlight its role in producing high-value materials such as type I cellulose nanofibrils, offering cost-effective and sustainable pathways for biopolymers and advanced applications in textiles, food, packaging, and healthcare (Dai et al., 2025) [38] . Government schemes like GOBAR-DHAN and Godhan Nyay Yojana further support compressed biogas and organic fertilizers, enhancing farmers' income and aligning with circular economy models (Sahdev et al., 2024) [76] .

Employment Generation:

Cow dung utilization fosters rural employment opportunities in energy, processing, and manufacturing. Thermochemical conversion pathways such as pyrolysis and gasification create demand for skilled labor in renewable energy generation, syngas, and bio-oil production (Constantinescu et al., 2024; Kim et al., 2024) [37,41] . In addition, construction applications involving dung-based plasters and bricks promote entrepreneurship and skill development among rural communities, generating substantial income through locally available resources (Kulshreshtha et al., 2022) [42] . These valorization pathways collectively strengthen rural livelihoods by offering diverse employment streams across multiple sectors (Sahdev et al., 2024) [76] .

Environmental Outcomes:

Environmentally, cow dung valorization contributes to significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions over 90% in certain applications while mitigating waste and pollution, improving soil health, and supporting renewable energy production (Sahdev et al., 2024) [76] . Thermochemical approaches such as pyrolysis, gasification, hydrothermal liquifaction, and combustion produce bioenergy and biochar, with potential integration of carbon capture technologies for further emission control (Guo et al., 2020; Kiehbadroudinezhad et al., 2025) [39,40] . The use of microbial aggregates in cow dung for water-resistant earthen blocks offers eco-friendly construction solutions, while biochar improves soil quality and supports sustainable agriculture (Kulshreshtha et al., 2022) [42] . Collectively, these outcomes position cow dung valorization as a driver of environmental resilience and resource conservation

Policy and Financial Support

Government policies and financial support play a central role in promoting cow dung valorization which directly strengthen the Bio-E3 framework-Economy, Employment, and Environment. Through energy and fertilizer policies, schemes like GOBAR-DHAN, Godhan Nyay Yojana, the National Biogas and Manure Management Programme (NBMMP), and SATAT provide subsidies and aid for biogas and compressed biogas (CBG) plants, reducing fossil fuel dependence while producing clean energy and organic manure (Honoured, 2019; Sahdev, Jain, & Aggarwal, 2024; Yadav & Sircar, 2021; Mishra, 2016) [76,50,47] . Carbon credit markets and green finance further boost economic viability, enabling farmers to earn income from carbon trading, though higher carbon prices are needed for wider adoption (Cariappa et al., 2024) [46] . At the same time, skilling initiatives such as Suryamitra, Varunmitra, TPSDI, and SCGJ train youth for green jobs, while community participation and women's self-help groups enhance adoption and empower rural households (Bajaj et [45., 53, 54] . Together, these measures reduce energy poverty, improve sanitation, promote organic farming, and create livelihoods, making cow dung valorization a driver of sustainable development. Other policies and schemes Supporting Cow Dung Valorization and Their Impacts are listed in below table 1

Policy / Scheme

Purpose / Impact References GOBAR-DHAN Supports biogas and organic fertilizer production, enhances farmer income, reduces waste Honoured, 2019; Sahdev, Jain, & Aggarwal, 2024 [76] Godhan Nyay Yojana Promotes cow dung collection, valorization, and rural livelihoods Sahdev, Jain, & Aggarwal, 2024 [76] ; Yadav & Sircar, 2021 [50] National Biogas and Manure Management Programme (NBMMP)

Provides subsidies for biogas plants and manure management

Mishra, 2016; Sahdev, Jain, & Aggarwal, 2024 [47,76] SATAT (Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation) Encourages compressed biogas (CBG) production for clean fuel Sahdev, Jain, & Aggarwal, 2024 [76] Rashtriya Kamdhenu Aayog Initiatives It works to conserve and develop cows and their breeds. [74,60] . Cowdung mixed with waste contains many impurities that create a hurdle for the biogas plant to work properly. Biogas plants can be dangerous because they carry serious risks such as fires explosions, toxic gas leaks, and poor slurry management, which can endanger both workers and ecosystems (Stolecka & Rusin, 2021) [61] .

Cowdung is transformed into biogas by the process of anaerobic digestion is always found not easy technical issues occurs like leftover material (digestate) need treatment, process work best at use on farms. The process works best at certain temperatures, optimal C/N ratio, and microbial balance that has to maintained (Samoraj et al., 2022; Hamzah et al., 2023; Nekhubvi, 2022) [63,64] . The therapeutic potential of cowdung has been neglected, scientists and industries have not explored on this, so that it can be useful in medicine or health products due to it bioactive properties (Raja et al., 2021) [67] .

Future Prospects of Cow Dung Valorization

The future of cow dung valorization in India holds significant promise if supported by good policies and new technologies. On economic scale use of cowdungfor energy have shown good economic benefits. Community-based energy models projects show that these systems can be economically feasible and replicable, save money for rural families and reduce the need for fossil fuels (Ceglia et al., 2022; Jessica et al., 2011) [71, 73] . Also these models provide local employment in bioenergy production, forest management, and renewable energy infrastructure (Jessica et al., 2011) [73] . With proper government policy subsidies, small and medium biogas plants can grow, reducing transportation and generating income for farmers (Brahmi et al., 2024) [70] . Making products like compressed biogas, biofertilizers, and biochar from cow dung can create new businesses and increase farmers' income (Sahdev et al., 2024; Kushwaha et al., 2024) [76,74] . The green economy is sharpened as products like compressed biogas, biofertilizers, and biochar are made from cowdung (Sahdev et al., 2024; Kushwaha et al., 2024) [76,74] . Dairy cooperatives help farmers to sell cowdung at fair prices and offer jobs for people in collecting, processing, and distributing products (Rath & Joshi, 2020) [75] . New biogas technologies like nanobubble systems and microbial electrolysis for generating energy from waste to create skilled jobs in running plants, developing technology, and turning waste into energy (Sher et al., 2024; Goldfarb et al., 2022) [79,72] . Cow dung is offers important environmental benefits. It reduces greenhouse gas emissions and support clean energy by converted into biogas, biomethane, hydrogen, and organic fertilizers (Sher et al., 2024; Saboohi & Hosseini, 2025) [79,77] . Cow dung and its natural microbes plays a key role in improving soil health, increasing pest resistance and reduce the need for chemical fertilizers (Banerjee et al., 2023) [69] . Community biogas projects provide long-term environmental advantages by protecting forests, improve cooking conditions, and recovering valuable resources (Shaibur et al., 2021) [78] .

Conclusion

Cow dung, a traditionally undervalued bioresource, has emerged as a cornerstone of sustainable development through its contribution to the Bio-E3 framework Economy, Employment, and Environment. Its multifaceted applications, ranging from biogas and biofertilizer production to ecofriendly construction materials and organic farming, highlight its immense potential for circular bioeconomy advancement. Economically, cow dung valorization offers cost-effective and renewable alternatives to fossil fuels and chemical fertilizers while generating additional income for farmers and entrepreneurs. Employment-wise, initiatives such as GOBAR-DHAN and Godhan Nyay Yojana have demonstrated its role in empowering rural communities, particularly women and youth, by creating green jobs and small-scale business opportunities. Environmentally, cow dung utilization mitigates greenhouse gas emissions, enhances soil fertility, and contributes to waste management and climate change adaptation. Despite challenges like improper waste segregation, limited technical expertise, and safety concerns in biogas operations, the future remains promising with government support, technological innovation, and public participation. Integrating cow dung valorization into national energy and agricultural policies can strengthen rural livelihoods, promote renewable energy, and advance India's commitment to sustainable development and carbon neutrality. Thus, cow dung serves not merely as waste, but as a vital agent for economic growth, environmental restoration, and rural transformation.

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