Impact of Jeevamrit and Panchagavya as liquid organic sources on growth, productivity and profitability of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

Introduction

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is one of the most important pulse crops, valued for its high nutritional content and adaptability to diverse agro-climatic conditions. Chickpea seeds contain about 17-24% protein, 52-70% carbohydrates, and are also rich in essential nutrients such as calcium, phosphorus, iron, and vitamins (Jukanti et al., 2012; Varshney et al., 2013) [13, 42] . Chickpea oil, though present in small amounts (4-7%), contains valuable phospholipids such as lecithin, which plays a critical role in the development of human nerve tissues (Wood & Grusak, 2007) [47] . In addition to its nutritional value, chickpea oil and by-microbial populations, improve soil fertility, and act similarly to plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) (Kumari et al., 2019; Kashyap et al., 2019; Patil & Solanki, 2016) [19,15,27,36] . Bacilli associated with the chickpea rhizosphere exhibit multifarious plant growth-promoting traits, including pathogen suppression and yield enhancement (Singh et al., 2014; Solanki et al., 2014; Solanki et al., 2012) [33,38] . Likewise, intercropping systems with legumes such as sugarcane-chickpea improve soil microbiomes, enhance diazotrophic activity, and contribute to long-term nutrient cycling (Solanki et al., 2016; Malviya et al., 2021; Solanki et al., 2018) [36,21,37] . Biofilm-forming bacteria, endophytes, and actinobacteria further support stress tolerance, nodulation, and nutrient mobilization, highlighting the broader role of the plant microbiome in agricultural sustainability (Yandigeri et [48,45,34,35] . Collectively, these studies confirm that microbial inoculants, mycorrhizal associations, and bio-based formulations are promising alternatives to chemical fertilizers and pesticides (Rai et al., 2019; Patil & Solanki, 2016) [27,36] . Agriculture today faces a range of challenges, including soil degradation, salinity, drought, extreme temperatures, and pathogenic pressures, which threaten crop productivity. Population growth and climate change further intensify the need for eco-friendly solutions. Liquid bio-fertilizers are a novel and cutting-edge technology with specific manufacturing processes in Indian agriculture. Coinoculation of seeds with bio-inoculants in various consortia, as opposed to solo-inoculation, may therefore plausibly influence the crop through direct and indirect pathways, leading to enhanced soil microbial population, available nutrients, and soybean yield. Since they contribute to higher crop yields, better soil health, and long-term global food production, liquid biofertilizers (LBF) are seen to be the ideal substitute for conventional carrier-based biofertilizers in modern agriculture. These liquid bioformulations help the soil's beneficial bacteria proliferate and have a lasting effect on subsequent crops, in addition to offering a conducive substrate for crop growth. N-fixing bacteria (Azotobacter chroococcum), P-solubilizing bacteria (Paenibacillus tylopilli), K-solubilizing bacteria (Bacillus decolorationis), and a single population of Zn-solubilizing bacteria (Bacillus endophyticus) are all present in the Bio-NPK liquid microbial consortium. By enhancing nodulation, solubilizing insoluble phosphorus, mobilizing potassium, and extending the nutrient absorption inaccessible zones, these inoculants help crops meet their nutrient needs through proper nitrogen fixation. Through nitrogen fixation, phosphate solubilization, potash mobilization, and the release of chemicals that regulate plant growth, biofertilizers maintain a soil environment rich in a range of micro and macronutrients (Javaid 2009). Bio-fertilizers, also known as microbial inoculants, can mobilize essential nutrients in the soil through biological processes, transforming them from non-use to usable forms for crop plants (Verma et al., 2020) [44] . The production of growth compounds and their effects on the plant, along with the use of Azotobacter chroococcum as a microbial inoculant in research investigations, greatly enhanced agricultural crop yield. The primary growth components that regulate the increased growth include auxins, cytokinins, and GA-like chemicals produced by the Azotobacteria genus of soil bacteria. Because auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins cumulatively affect growth-contributing traits and, ultimately, the product, seed, and Stover yield, applying RDF+ Rhizobium + PSB to soybean crops increased seed and stover yield (2634 kg ha-1 and 3125 kg ha-1). In comparison to the uninoculated control, improved nodulation, N2 fixation, crop growth, and seed yield (2600 kg ha-1) may be the reason for the increase in soybean seed yield following treatments of rhizobia and PSB inoculation with RDF. This study was conducted in Madhya Pradesh's rainfed environment to evaluate the effects of applying Bio-NPK and Bio-Zn in combination with chemical fertilizers on soybean growth, and yield.

Materials and Methods

During the 2023-24 rabi season, a field experiment was conducted at IES University's research farm, Bhopal (23.18684° N, 77.32662° E), to assess the effect of Jeevamrit and Panchagavya-two organic liquid formulations-on chickpea growth, yield, and profitability. The trial was carried out on a 300 m² organic plot with uniform soil and topography. Located on the subtropical Vindhyan Plateau at 469 m above sea level, the site receives 1,000-1,200 mm of annual rainfall, primarily from June to September. During the study period, temperatures ranged from 4.9 °C in January to 36.5 °C in March, with rainfall between 0.5 mm and 13.3 mm and relative humidity varying from 42.2% to 78.6%, as per Bhopal's weather station records.

Soil characteristics

The experimental field at IES University, Bhopal, features medium black clay loam soil with a gentle west-to-east slope, ensuring good drainage. Soil samples, collected at 0-30 cm depth using a screw-type auger, revealed low levels of nitrogen (152 kg/ha), phosphorus (9.23 kg/ha), and sulfur (6.61 ppm), moderate potassium (309 kg/ha), a neutral pH of 7.1, and normal electrical conductivity (0.5 dS/m), indicating a suitable environment for chickpea growth with some nutrient deficiencies (Subbiah and Asija, 1956; Olsen et al., 1954) [41,25] . The field has followed a soybeanchickpea rotation for the past three years (2021-24), supporting soil health through nitrogen fixation (Anonymous, 2021) [2] . This study, conducted in the 2023-24 rabi season, builds on this cropping history to test chickpea's response to organic inputs.

Experiment details and analysis

The experiment, conducted at IES University, Bhopal, during the 2023-24 rabi season, was designed as a Randomized Block Design (RBD) with seven treatments and three replications, totaling 21 plots. Each plot measured 5 m × 3 m (gross) and 4 m × 2.4 m (net), with 1 m between plots and 1.5 m between replications. The chickpea variety RVG204, was sown at 80 kg/ha with 30 cm row spacing. This variety, resistant to wilt and root rot, yields 18-20 q/ha and matures in 110-115 days. Vermicompost (2.5 t/ha) was applied uniformly near seed rows. Treatments included control (T1), soil-applied Jeevamrit (T2, 500 L/ha) and Panchagavya (T3, 500 L/ha) at 20 days after sowing (DAS), and foliar sprays of Jeevamrit at 5% (T4) and 7.5% (T5), and Panchagavya at 3% (T6) and 4% (T7) at pre-flowering and pod formation stages. Jeevamrit was prepared by mixing 12.5 kg cow dung, 12.5 L cow urine, 2.5 kg jaggery, 2.5 kg legume flour, and 2.5 kg virgin soil in 500 L water, fermented for three days. Panchagavya was made by mixing 7 kg cow dung, 1 kg ghee, 10 L cow urine, 10 L water, 2 L curd, 3 L milk, 3 L coconut water, 3 kg jaggery, and 12 bananas, fermented for 15 days. Seeds were treated with Rhizobium ciceri, PSB, and Trichoderma viride (5 g/kg each) before manual sowing on November 7, 2023. Field preparation involved tractor-drawn plowing and harrowing, followed by manual layout on November 5, 2023. Intercultural hoeing occurred on December 13, 2023, and January 2, 2024. Pests (cutworm and pod borer) were managed with 5% cow urine and 5 ml/L neem oil sprays. Harvesting and threshing were done manually on March 21 and 23, 2024, respectively. Observations included plant population, height, branches, root nodules, dry matter, crop growth rate (Watson, 1952), relative growth rate (Blackman, 1919), yield attributes (pods, seeds, grain yield, seed index), and economic metrics (cost, gross/net returns, benefit-cost ratio). Data were analyzed using Fisher's method, with significance tested at 5% (Nichiporovich, 1967) [23] .

Results

Morphological Studies

Discussion

The findings of the present study align with earlier research emphasizing the benefits of microbial-driven nutrient mobilization and organic amendments. Soil and foliar applications of Jeevamrit and Panchagavya improved growth, nodulation, and yield attributes, reflecting the combined effects of nutrient enrichment and microbial activity. Similar improvements in soil phosphorus transformation and nutrient uptake have been reported with phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms, demonstrating how microbial consortia enhance plant nutrient availability (Pang et al., 2024) [26] . PGPR-based formulations have also been shown to improve crop growth by synergistically interacting with nanoparticles and soil nutrients, reinforcing the idea of combining organic amendments with microbial inoculants for optimal outcomes (Verma et al., 2024) [43] . [45,33,38] . For instance, drought-tolerant actinobacteria and diazotrophic bacteria such as Pantoea dispersa and Enterobacter asburiae significantly enhance crop performance under nutrient-limited conditions (Yandigeri et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2020) [48,31] . These results parallel the observed effects of Jeevamrit, which likely stimulated microbial proliferation and root symbiosis, thereby improving nutrient uptake and yield. Furthermore, organic inputs enhance soil microbial diversity and stability, as demonstrated in sugarcane-legume intercropping systems [36,21,37,24] . Studies on proteomic and transcriptomic responses also indicate microbial roles in modulating plant defense and hormonal pathways, which may have parallels with chickpea physiology under organic treatments (Nong et al., 2022) [24] . The improvements in yield and profitability observed in this study, therefore, reflect both direct nutrient supplementation and indirect microbial benefits, confirming the pivotal role of microbial consortia in sustainable chickpea production (Solanki et [15,28] .

Effect on Growth Parameters

The data on plant population (Table 4.1) showed no significant differences across treatments, indicating uniform initial and final plant populations. This consistency likely stems from careful seed selection, proper seed treatments, and precise sowing at optimal depths, ensuring uniform germination and establishment.

For plant height and dry matter accumulation, foliar application of Panchagavya at 4% outperformed other treatments, while 3% Panchagavya was statistically comparable to other treatments at all observation stages except 30 days after sowing (DAS). The superior performance of Panchagavya at 4% can be attributed to its high nitrogen content (1.28%), which promotes vigorous vegetative growth. These findings align with studies by Jain et al. (2014) [11] , Kumaravelu and Kadamban (2009) [18] , and Kiran (2014) [16] . Notably, foliar application of Panchagavya at 3% enhanced key plant characteristics, including plant height, days to first and 50% flowering, number of leaves, branches, pods per plant, pod length, seeds per pod, seed yield per plant and plot, 100-seed weight, and overall seed quality.

Soil application of Jeevamrit at 500 L ha⁻¹ significantly increased the number of branches, root nodules, and dry weight of root nodules, followed by foliar applications of Jeevamrit at 7.5% and 5%. This enhancement is likely due to the beneficial microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) in Jeevamrit, which improve nutrient uptake. These results are corroborated by Yogananda et al. (2015) [49] , Laharia et al.

(2013) [20] , and Hameedi et al. (2018) [9] .

Effect on Standardized Doses of Liquid Organic Manures

The results indicate that foliar application of Panchagavya at 4% consistently excelled in relative growth rate (RGR) across all observation periods. Similarly, Panchagavya at 3% showed superior crop growth rate (CGR) during the 45-60 DAS interval. These outcomes are likely driven by Panchagavya's high nitrogen content (1.28%) and growthpromoting substances, which enhance plant vigor. In comparison, Jeevamrit contains 0.92% nitrogen, 0.11% phosphorus, and 0.78% potassium, while Panchagavya has 0.13% phosphorus and 0.84% potassium. Kiran (2014) [16] reported that combining Beejamrit, Jeevamrit, and vermicompost equivalent to 50% recommended dose of nitrogen (RDN) with 3% Panchagavya foliar spray significantly increased available soil nitrogen (190.40 kg ha⁻¹) compared to Beejamrit and Jeevamrit alone (158.27 kg ha⁻¹).

Effect on Yield and Yield Attributes

Jeevamrit, rich in macro-and micronutrients, beneficial microorganisms, and growth-promoting substances, enhances plant growth, metabolic activity, and resistance to pests and diseases (Devakumar et al., 2008; Devakumar et al., 2014) [6] . In this study, soil application of Jeevamrit at 500 L ha⁻¹ resulted in a significantly higher grain yield (1,328 kg ha⁻¹), a 28.31% increase over the control (1,035 kg ha⁻¹). Similarly, straw yield was higher at 1,841 kg ha⁻¹, a 27.14% increase over the control (1,448 kg ha⁻¹) (Table 4 Jeevamrit compared to the control (117 q ha⁻¹).

Effect on Economics

The economic viability of any agricultural practice hinges on net returns and the benefit-to-cost (B:C) ratio. Soil application of Jeevamrit at 500 L ha⁻¹ yielded the highest gross monetary returns (₹69,586 ha⁻¹), followed by foliar application of Jeevamrit at 7.5% (₹67,853 ha⁻¹). These higher returns were driven by increased grain and straw yields. In contrast, the control recorded the lowest gross returns (₹54,216 ha⁻¹) due to lower yields (Table 4.15).

These findings are supported by Siddappa et al. (2016) [30] and Kasbe (2009), who noted that Jeevamrit, when combined with other organic manures like vermicompost, is a cost-effective option that enhances soil nutrient status and crop profitability. Net returns followed a similar trend, with Jeevamrit at 500 L ha⁻¹ yielding ₹42,201 ha⁻¹, followed by foliar application of Jeevamrit at 7.5% (₹41,238 ha⁻¹). The control had the lowest net return (₹28,123 ha⁻¹) due to lower yields and gross returns. The highest B:C ratio (2.55) was achieved with foliar application of Jeevamrit at 7.5%, closely followed by soil application of Jeevamrit at 500 L ha⁻¹ (2.54), attributed to lower cultivation costs. These results are consistent with Amareswari and Sujathamma (2014) [1] and Siddappa et al. (2016) [30] , confirming the economic advantages of Jeevamrit applications. [33,48,34,19,15,27,36,28] . By enhancing soil microbial diversity and promoting nutrient availability, organic formulations support crop productivity while maintaining ecological sustainability (Solanki et [36,21,37,35] . [45, 26, 47, 31, 24, 28] . Therefore, the outcomes of this study reinforce the broader body of evidence that organic inputs not only enhance immediate yield and economic returns but also pave the way for long-term soil fertility and sustainable farming systems (Solanki et al., 2023a; Kashyap et al., 2019; Patil & Solanki, 2016) [15,27,36,28] .

Conclusion

The study demonstrates that Panchagavya and Jeevamrit, applied through soil and foliar methods, significantly enhance crop growth, yield, and economic returns. Foliar application of Panchagavya at 4% excelled in promoting plant height and growth rates, while soil application of Jeevamrit at 500 L ha⁻¹ boosted grain and straw yields by 28.31% and 27.14%, respectively, over the control, driven by improved nutrient availability and microbial activity. Economically, Jeevamrit treatments yielded higher gross (₹69,586 ha⁻¹) and net returns (₹42,201 ha⁻¹), with a favorable B:C ratio (up to 2.55), underscoring their costeffectiveness and potential for sustainable agriculture. Future research should focus on optimizing application schedules and dosages of Panchagavya and Jeevamrit to maximize nutrient efficiency across diverse crops and agroclimatic zones. Long-term studies are needed to assess their impact on soil health and environmental sustainability.

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