Evaluation of rural women's involvement in cassava farming in the Orashi region of rivers state

Introduction

Cassava (Manihot spp.) is acknowledged as one of Nigeria's key food crops, alongside yams, rice, maize, sorghum, and millet (NEEDS, 2004) [15] . This perennial root crop is wellsuited to less-than-ideal growing conditions and serves as a crucial staple across regions in Africa, South America, and Asia. It was introduced to Nigeria by returning slaves from the Americas (Nwibo, 2011) [8] . In Nigeria, cassava is cultivated for multiple purposes, including generating income, providing food, serving as animal feed, and supplying raw materials for agro-allied industries that produce starch, alcohol, pharmaceuticals, and confectionery items (Francisco, 2004; Onwumere et al., 2006) [11,20] . Nigeria stands as the leading global producer of cassava, outpacing Brazil by a significant margin and nearly doubling the production levels of Indonesia and Thailand (FAO, 2004a) [8] . By 2005, Nigeria's total cassava output reached 38 million tons (FAO, 2006) [10] . When analysing crop production in Nigeria, cassava ranks first, followed by yams at 27 million tons in 2002, sorghum at 7 million tons, millet at 6 million tons, and rice at 5 million tons (FAO, 2004b) [9] . In terms of per capita production, the North Central region had the highest yield of cassava at 0.72 tons per person in 2002, with the Southeast region following at 0.56 tons per person (IITA, 2004) [12] . This crop is essential for ensuring food security among rural households due to its adaptability to poor soil conditions and resilience to drought (Ezedinma et al., 2006) [7] . In Rivers State, where agriculture plays a vital role in the economy, cassava production significantly contributes to food security and livelihood enhancement. Women represent a large segment of the agricultural workforce and are integral to the cultivation, processing, and marketing of cassava. Recent research has underscored the critical roles women play in this sector. For instance, Akinwumi and Ojo (2021) [4] highlight that women are involved not only in planting and harvesting but also in processing cassava into staple products like garri and fufu. Their findings indicate that women's efforts greatly impact household food security and nutrition. Similarly, Shamsodini et al. (2011) [25] report that women are primarily responsible for various farming activities such as hoeing, weeding, harvesting, transporting, www.extensionjournal.com storing, processing, marketing, and household chores, providing them with additional income opportunities and enhancing their contributions to food security. Rahman (2004) [24] also notes that while women in Nigeria form an active labor force, they often lack ownership of production resources. The significance of women's roles in addressing agricultural development challenges cannot be overstated. Women contribute significantly to food productionproviding between 60-80% of agricultural labor and being responsible for 80% of food production (Mgbada, 2002; Rahman, 2004) [14,24] . Despite these vital contributions, rural women face numerous obstacles that limit their full engagement in cassava production. Ogunniyi and Afolabi (2020) [19] identify several barriers, such as restricted access to land, credit facilities, and agricultural extension services, that hinder their production capabilities. Additionally, gender dynamics within agriculture are complex and often shaped by socio-cultural factors. Nwankwo and Njoku (2021) [16] argue that traditional gender roles frequently marginalize women's contributions, resulting in a lack of recognition and support for their involvement in cassava farming. This marginalization is exacerbated by inadequate policies that do not address the specific needs of women farmers. Additionally, Adeyemo and Adebayo (2022) [2] emphasize the necessity of empowering women through specific initiatives that improve their access to resources and training, which in turn boosts their productivity and economic standing. Considering the importance of cassava and the vital role women play in its cultivation within the region, one would expect a substantial yield of cassava for both household use and export. However, given that the reality is quite different, it becomes crucial to evaluate women's involvement in cassava production in the study area.

Purpose of Study

The primary objective of this study was to investigate the role of women in cassava farming within the Orashi region of Rivers State, Nigeria. To achieve this goal, the study aimed to fulfill the following specific objectives: i. to examine the socio-economic profiles of the participants, ii. to evaluate the extent of the participants' involvement in cassava cultivation, and iii. to identify the challenges that hinder effective participation in cassava production among the respondents in the area.

Hypothesis of the study:

There is no significant difference in the level of participation in cassava production among rural women in Rivers State

Methodology of the Study

Source: Abali, et al., 2011 [1] region is characterized by its traditional languages, cultural customs, and religious practices that embody the heritage of its seven primary ethnic groups: Abua, Odua, Ekpeye, Ngene, Ogba, Egbema, and Ndoni. The predominantly agricultural community benefits from the fertile land offered by the rainforest ecosystem, which is interspersed with streams, lakes, and rivers that sustain a diverse range of wildlife. The climate features a wet season from April to November, characterized by significant rainfall (ranging from 200 to 300 cm) and humidity levels averaging around 80%. Temperatures generally fluctuate between 20 °C and 30 °C, with moderate winds affecting overall weather conditions (Abali et al., 2010) [1] . In addition to its agricultural activities, the Orashi region is situated in an oil-rich part of Rivers State, hosting operations from various multinational oil companies, including Nigeria Agip Oil Company (NAOC), Elf Petroleum Nigeria Limited (EPNL), and Shell Petroleum Development Company (SPDC). This industrial activity plays a crucial role in shaping the economic landscape of the area, impacting local livelihoods and raising environmental concerns. The Orashi region is significant not only for its natural resources but also for its cultural diversity and traditional practices, making it an important area within the state. The study focuses on rural women engaged in cassava cultivation in the region, employing a multi-stage sampling method to select participants. Initially, the four local government areas in Rivers State were purposefully chosen. Subsequently, five communities were randomly selected from each of these local government areas, resulting in a total of twenty communities. Finally, six cassava farmers were chosen from each of the twenty selected communities, yielding a total of one hundred and twenty respondents who were interviewed. Data collection involved the use of a structured questionnaire and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). Secondary sources such as journals, online resources, and other printed materials were utilized to gather relevant information for the study. Data analysis was conducted using descriptive statistics, including frequency counts, percentages, and means. The hypothesis was tested using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). A three-point Likerttype scale was employed to assess respondents' participation levels in cassava production, with values assigned as high (3), low (2), and very low (1), where the midpoint was set at 2.0. To identify barriers to effective participation of women in cassava production, a four-point Likert scale consisting of strongly agree (4), agree (3), disagree (2), and strongly disagree (1) was implemented, with a critical midpoint value of 2.5.

Results and Discussion

Social-economic characteristics of the respondents

Table 1 shows that 80% of the participants reported having between 1 and 5 children, whereas 12.5% had between 6 and 10 children. Furthermore, 16.67% indicated they had more than 10 children, and 4.17% stated they had no children at all. Regarding educational background, 60% of the respondents had received non-formal education, 15% were participating in an adult literacy initiative, and 25% possessed a senior school certificate as their highest level of education. This aligns with the findings of Onyemauwa (2006) [21] and Aqeela et al. (2005) [5] , who noted that women and girls constitute two-thirds of the one billion illiterate people globally. The authors emphasized that this educational deficiency could impede the effectiveness of institutional support aimed at improving farmers' productivity. Oyemauwa (2012) [22] , citing Poly-Mbah and Udeogu (2007) [23] and Nwaru (2007) [17] , highlighted that low educational attainment might also restrict these individuals from forming groups and accessing agricultural credit. Illiteracy and inadequate education are recognized as major obstacles to effective institutional support for agriculture. Lastly, Table 1 reveals that 60% of the respondents depend exclusively on cassava farming for their income, while 40% participate in both cassava cultivation and other business ventures. Additionally, the data show that 75% of the respondents identify as Christians, whereas 25% adhere to traditional religious practices.

Levels of women's participation in cassava production

Table 2 displays the average participation scores of respondents in various aspects of cassava production. The findings indicate the following mean scores: weeding operations averaged 2.80, planting operations had a mean score of 2.70, while both the supply and sourcing of planting materials recorded an average of 2.60. Stumping received a mean score of 2.50, harvesting scored 2.45, and www.extensionjournal.com the application of fertilizer or manure had a mean score of 2.20. These results align with the research conducted by Shamsodini et al. (2011), which highlighted that women are predominantly responsible for a wide range of agricultural tasks, including hoeing, weeding, harvesting, transporting, storing, processing, marketing, and various domestic responsibilities. These activities not only create additional income opportunities but also significantly contribute to enhancing household food security. Conversely, land clearing was noted to have a low participation mean score of 1.58, reflecting minimal involvement in this task. This observation is supported by Onyemauwa (2012) [22] , who reported that women typically refrain from participating in land clearing for cassava cultivation due to the strenuous nature of the work. Table 2 displays the average participation scores of respondents in various aspects of cassava production. The findings indicate the following mean scores: weeding operations averaged 2.80, planting operations had a mean score of 2.70, while both the supply and sourcing of planting materials recorded an average of 2.60. Stumping received a mean score of 2.50, harvesting scored 2.45, and the application of fertilizer or manure had a mean score of 2.20. These results align with the research conducted by Shamsodini et al. (2011) [25] , which highlighted that women are predominantly responsible for a wide range of agricultural tasks, including hoeing, weeding, harvesting, transporting, storing, processing, marketing, and various domestic responsibilities. These activities not only create additional income opportunities but also significantly contribute to enhancing household food security. Conversely, land clearing was noted to have a low participation mean score of 1.58, reflecting minimal involvement in this task. This observation is supported by Onyemauwa (2012) [22] , who reported that women typically refrain from participating in land clearing for cassava cultivation due to the strenuous nature of the work. According to the data presented in Table 3, the p-value of 0.974 exceeds the alpha level of 0.05. Therefore, we accept the null hypothesis, which posits that there is no significant difference in participation levels among the respondents. Accepting this hypothesis suggests that the different communities involved in the study exhibited similar levels of participation. Additionally, the study has previously indicated a high involvement of women in cassava farming.

Test of Hypothesis of the study

Barriers to women's effective participation in cassava production

The barriers to effective participation of women in cassava production identified by respondents in Table 4 included several key factors: inadequate funding, which had a mean score of 3.80; dependence on marginal land (mean = 3.75); insufficient land ownership among women (mean = 3.70); poor collaboration between government entities and rural women (mean = 3.70); lack of group organization (mean = 3.70); limited interaction with extension services (mean = 3.50); absence of formal education (mean = 3.40); and difficulties in accessing fertilizers (mean = 3.40). These results are consistent with the findings of Ajani and Onwubuya (2013) [3] , referencing Akinnagbe (2010) [4] , which categorized various challenges in cassava production into agronomic, cultural, institutional/technical, infrastructural, and financial constraints. Furthermore, Makarau et al. (2011) [13] corroborated that despite women's significant contributions to cassava farming, their access to financial credit is often restricted, which may lead to a decrease in production capacity. www.extensionjournal.com

Conclusion and Recommendations

The study revealed that a significant majority of respondents, 90%, were aged between 50 and 60 years, and 70% did not have formal education. Additionally, 60% of the participants were exclusively engaged in farming, while 40% combined farming with other entrepreneurial ventures to sustain their livelihoods. Women were actively involved in various aspects of cassava production, including weeding, planting, sourcing planting materials, tilling the soil, harvesting, stumping, and applying fertilizers or manure; however, their involvement in land clearing was notably limited. The research identified several barriers hindering effective participation in cassava production, such as restricted access to credit, dependence on marginal land, lack of land ownership for women, inadequate education and training, and insufficient collaboration between government agencies and rural communities. These challenges have contributed to lower production levels among rural women. In light of these findings, the study suggests the following recommendations: 1. Creating effective cooperative societies among rural women to enhance their decision-making capabilities and facilitate better access to credit. 2. The government should implement policies and legislation to dismantle cultural barriers that hinder women's land ownership. 3. Credit facilities should be made more accessible to rural women in the study area to promote their involvement in cassava farming. 4. There should be increased support for the promotion of improved planting materials through the engagement of agricultural extension officers.

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