Effects of integrated nutrient management on wheat growth and yield under late-sown conditions

Introduction

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), a vital staple crop, sustains approximately 40% of the global population, ranking as the second most important cereal after rice. It supplies 21% of food calories and 20% of protein for over 4.5 billion people across 94 countries. Globally, wheat occupies 215.48 million hectares, yielding 731.4 million metric tonnes with an average productivity of 3390 kg/ha (Asghar et al., 2023) [3] . In India, wheat is central to food and nutritional security, covering 29.65 million hectares and producing 99.9 million tonnes, with a productivity of 3371 kg/ha, contributing nearly one-third of total food grain production (Khan et al., 2022) [10] . With the world population projected to grow from 7.7 billion to 9.7 billion by 2050, and India's population expected to reach 1.7 billion, wheat's role in ensuring global food security remains critical (Karmakar et al., 2021; Baloch et al., 2023) [9,5] . In India, Uttar Pradesh leads wheat cultivation, accounting for 9.65 million hectares (36.6% of India's wheat area) and 26.87 million tonnes (39.3% of production), though its productivity of 2785 kg/ha lags behind Punjab (4300 kg/ha) and Haryana (4000 kg/ha) (Kumar et al., 2022) [11] . Challenges such as late sowing after long-duration rice or sugarcane, low seed replacement rates, imbalanced fertilization, inefficient water management, and limited mechanization contribute to this gap. In western Uttar Pradesh, sowing delays until late December or early January expose wheat to high temperatures during maturity, significantly reducing yields. Farmers often resort to excessive nitrogen application to compensate, disregarding yield physiology and escalating environmental and economic costs (Zheng et al., 2020) [16] .

The overuse of inorganic fertilizers over decades, without organic inputs, has led to widespread micronutrient deficiencies, impairing crop quality and quantity by affecting enzyme systems and photosynthesis (Anee et al., 2022; Ali, 2025) [2,1] . The rising cost of chemical fertilizers, coupled with their environmental impacts, has heightened the need for sustainable nutrient management strategies. Integrated nutrient management (INM), which combines judicious doses of inorganic fertilizers with organic sources like farmyard manure (FYM) and vermicompost, offers a promising solution. INM enhances nutrient use efficiency, improves soil health, and sustains productivity by leveraging the immediate nutrient supply of chemical fertilizers and the long-term benefits of organic manures, which enhance soil structure, water retention, and microbial activity (Verma et [15,14,13,5] . Organic amendments, particularly vermicompost, increase nutrient availability and soil fertility, while reducing reliance on costly inorganic inputs, making INM economically viable for small and marginal farmers in western Uttar Pradesh (Oyege and Balaji, 2023) [12] . Furthermore, INM aligns with ecological goals by minimizing nutrient losses and pollution, supporting the conversion of marginal lands into productive fields (Hoque et al., 2022) [7] . Despite its potential, the adoption of INM among farmer's remains limited due to a lack of awareness and localized data on its benefits for wheat under late-sown conditions. This study aims to address this gap by evaluating the effects of INM strategies, combining varying proportions of inorganic nitrogen with FYM and vermicompost, on wheat growth parameters, yield attributes, and soil health (Aslam et al., 2019) [4] . By generating evidence-based insights, the research seeks to inform nutrient management practices that optimize wheat productivity, enhance economic returns, and ensure environmental sustainability in the challenging agroecological context of latesown wheat cultivation (Fixen et al., 2015; Karasahin, 2023) [6,8] . This study investigates the effects of INM strategies on wheat under late-sown conditions, focusing on key growth parameters such as plant population, plant height, tiller density, dry matter accumulation, leaf area index, crop growth rate, relative growth rate, net assimilation rate, and yield attributes. By evaluating various combinations of reduced recommended doses of nitrogen (RDN) with organic amendments, the research seeks to identify optimal nutrient management practices that enhance wheat performance, improve yield potential, and promote sustainable cultivation in challenging agroecological conditions.

Materials and Methods Experimental Site and Design

The study was conducted during the rabi season of 2024-2025 at an experimental farm in western Uttar Pradesh, India, characterized by a subtropical climate with mean temperatures ranging from 10°C to 25°C during the wheat growing period. The soil was a sandy loam with a pH of 7.8, low organic carbon (0.45%), and deficient in available nitrogen (180 kg/ha), phosphorus (12 kg/ha), and potassium (140 kg/ha). The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design (RBD) with three replications, comprising 12 treatments applied to latesown wheat (variety HD-2967) planted in mid-December 2024. Each plot measured 5 m × 4 m, with a row spacing of 20 cm and a seed rate of 100 kg/ha. The treatments were designed to evaluate the effects of integrated nutrient management (INM) by combining varying proportions of the recommended dose of nitrogen (RDN, 120 kg N/ha) with organic amendments, namely farmyard manure (FYM) and Vermicompost (Table 1).

Crop Management

The field was prepared with two plowings followed by planking to achieve a fine tilth. Seeds were sown manually at a depth of 5 cm, and irrigation was applied at critical growth stages (crown root initiation, tillering, jointing, flowering, and grain filling) using a surface irrigation system, ensuring adequate moisture without waterlogging. Weeds were controlled manually at 25 and 45 days after sowing (DAS), and no significant pest or disease incidence was observed, negating the need for chemical interventions. Standard agronomic practices for late-sown wheat were followed to ensure uniform crop growth across treatments.

Data Collection

Comprehensive data were collected on growth, physiological, yield, and soil parameters to evaluate the effects of INM treatments, with measurements taken at specific growth stages to capture temporal dynamics.

Plant Population: Recorded at 20 days after sowing (DAS) to assess seedling establishment. Plants were counted within three randomly placed 1m² quadrats per plot, ensuring representative sampling across the plot area. The average number of plants/m² was calculated to reflect treatment effects on germination and early vigor.

Plant Height: Measured at 30, 60, 90 DAS, and at harvest to track vegetative growth. Five plants per plot were randomly selected and tagged at 15 DAS to ensure consistent measurements. Height was recorded from the soil surface to the tip of the main stem (excluding awns at harvest) using a meter scale, with measurements taken in the morning to minimize diurnal variations. Data were averaged to obtain mean plant height (cm) per treatment.

Tiller Density: Assessed at 30, 60, 90 DAS, and harvest to evaluate tiller production and retention, a critical yield determinant. Tillers were counted in two 1 m² quadrats placed randomly in each plot, avoiding border rows to reduce edge effects. Both total and productive tillers (bearing spikes at harvest) were recorded, and the average tillers/m² was calculated.

Dry Matter Accumulation: Determined at 30, 60, 90 DAS, and harvest to quantify biomass production. Plants from a 0.5 m² area per plot were uprooted, cleaned to remove soil, and separated into roots, stems, and leaves (and spikes at harvest). Samples were oven-dried at 70 °C for 48 hours until constant weight, weighed using a precision balance, and expressed as g/m². This provided insights into treatment effects on biomass allocation and growth efficiency.

Leaf Area Index (LAI): Measured at 30, 60, and 90 DAS to assess canopy development and photosynthetic capacity. Leaf area was determined using a portable leaf area meter (LI-COR 3000) on five randomly selected plants per plot. Leaves were detached, measured immediately to prevent wilting, and LAI was calculated as the ratio of total leaf area to ground area (m²/m²). Measurements were taken between 10:00 and 12:00 to ensure consistent light conditions.

Crop Growth Rate (CGR): Calculated for the intervals 0-30, 30-60, 60-90, and 90-120 DAS to evaluate dry matter accumulation rate. CGR was computed using the formula: CGR = (W₂ -W₁)/(t₂ -t₁), where W₁ and W₂ are dry weights (g/m²) at times t₁ and t₂ (days). Data were derived from dry matter measurements, providing a measure of growth efficiency (g/m²/day).

Relative Growth Rate (RGR):

Computed for the same intervals as CGR to assess biomass increment relative to existing biomass. RGR was calculated as: RGR = (ln W₂ -ln W₁)/(t₂ -t₁), where ln W₁ and ln W₂ are natural logarithms of dry weights at t₁ and t₂. Expressed as g/g/day, RGR reflected the efficiency of biomass production per unit of existing biomass.

Net Assimilation Rate (NAR): Estimated at 30, 60, 90, and 120 DAS to quantify photosynthetic efficiency. NAR was calculated using the formula: NAR = [(W₂ -W₁)/(t₂ -t₁)] × [(ln LA₂ -ln LA₁)/(LA₂ -LA₁)], where W₁ and W₂ are dry weights and LA₁ and LA₂ are leaf areas at t₁ and t₂. Expressed as g/m²/day, NAR provided insights into the net photosynthetic contribution to dry matter accumulation.

Yield Attributes: Recorded at harvest from a net plot area of 4 m² per treatment to assess productivity and yield components.

Effective tillers/m² were counted as tillers bearing spikes in two 1 m² quadrats. Grains per spike were determined by averaging the grain count from 10 randomly selected spikes per plot. Test weight (g) was measured by weighing 1000 grains (in triplicate) using an electronic balance, adjusted to 12% moisture content. Grain yield (q/ha) was obtained by harvesting, threshing, and weighing grains from the net plot, converted to quintals per hectare at 12% moisture. Straw yield (q/ha) was calculated by weighing above-ground biomass (excluding grains) after sundrying. Biological yield (q/ha) was the sum of grain and straw yields. Harvest index (%) was computed as: (grain yield/biological yield) × 100.

Statistical Analysis

Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the RBD framework, with treatment means compared using the least significant difference (LSD) test at a 5% probability level (p ≤ 0.05). Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS software (version 26.0) to determine significant differences among treatments for all measured parameters. 7). (0.16 g/g/day), T2 (0.15 g/g/day), and T5 (0.15 g/g/day) excelled. At 90 DAS, T3 (0.13 g/g/day) maintained dominance. At harvest, T3 (0.06 g/g/day) led, with T1 at 0.03 g/g/day (Table 8). Vermicompost treatments outperformed FYM, enhancing growth efficiency and yield potential under late-sown conditions.

Results

Effect of Integrated

Effect of Integrated Nutrient Management on Net Assimilation Rate

INM significantly enhanced net assimilation rate (NAR) in wheat across growth stages. T12 (100% RDN) and T11 (25% RDN + 75% vermicompost) consistently recorded the highest NAR, reaching 0.95 and 0.94 g/m²/day at 120 DAS, respectively, while T1 (control) was lowest (0.50-0.80 g/m²/day from 30-120 DAS). Treatments T6-T9 (50%-75% RDN with FYM/vermicompost) showed progressive NAR increases, with T9 (50% RDN + 50% vermicompost) reaching 0.92 g/m²/day at 120 DAS (Table 9). Vermicompost's nutrient availability and soil health benefits boosted photosynthetic efficiency, enhancing growth and yield under late-sown conditions. The number of grains per spike was also higher in T12 (52 grains) and T11 (51 grains), while T1 had only 40 grains per spike. This increase in grain number can be attributed to improved nutrient uptake in vermicomposttreated plots. Test weight followed a similar trend, with T10 (25% RDN + 75% FYM) and T11 achieving the highest values (44 g), compared to the lowest value (35 g) in the control. This suggests that increased organic inputs enhance grain filling and development. Grain yield ranged from 32.5 q/ha in the control to 47.5 q/ha in T12, with T11 (46.8 q/ha) and T10 (45.6 q/ha) also showing remarkable improvement. Straw yield increased from 42 q/ha (T1) to 57.2 q/ha (T12), while biological yield peaked at 104.7 q/ha in T12. The harvest index was highest in T12 (45.37%) and lowest in T1 (43.62%), indicating efficient biomass partitioning in INM treatments (Table 10). Overall, INM practices, particularly those incorporating vermicompost, substantially enhanced wheat yield and its contributing parameters, reinforcing their role in promoting sustainable crop production under late-sown conditions.

Discussion

The results of this study highlight the profound impact of integrated nutrient management (INM) on wheat performance under late-sown conditions, demonstrating its efficacy in enhancing crop establishment, growth, and yield while promoting sustainable agricultural practices. The significant improvements in plant population, particularly in treatments like T11 (25% RDN + 75% vermicompost, 105 plants/m²) and T10 (25% RDN + 75% FYM, 101 plants/m²) compared to the control (T1, 51 plants/m²), underscore the role of organic amendments in overcoming nutrient deficiencies and abiotic stresses such as low temperatures and reduced soil moisture. Vermicompost's superior performance over FYM, attributed to its finer particle size, higher nutrient mineralization, and beneficial microbial activity, aligns with findings by Arancon, who noted enhanced germination and seedling vigor with vermicompost. Conversely, the reduced plant population in T2 (125% RDN + 25% FYM, 61 plants/m²) suggests that excessive inorganic nitrogen may cause osmotic stress or nutrient imbalances, as reported by Roberts et al. Plant height was also markedly improved by INM, with T7 (75% RDN + 25% vermicompost, 110.45 cm at 60 DAS) and T10 (110.2 cm) excelling early on due to vermicompost's rapid nutrient release, as described by Edwards and Burrows (1988). At later stages, treatments with higher inorganic nitrogen (T2, T4, T3) achieved maximum heights, indicating nitrogen's critical role in vegetative growth, though vermicompost-based treatments maintained competitive heights while supporting soil health. Tiller density, a key yield determinant, was significantly enhanced by INM, with T3 (125% RDN + 25% vermicompost, 310 tillers/m² at 90 DAS) and T2 (300 tillers/m²) leading, corroborating Atiyeh on vermicompost's ability to improve soil aeration and microbial activity. Lower tiller counts in T10 and T11 (210-215 tillers/m²) highlight the need for balanced nitrogen inputs, though T5 (100% RDN + 25% vermicompost) showed that strategic organic integration can sustain tiller productivity. Dry matter accumulation, LAI, CGR, RGR, and NAR were consistently higher in INM treatments, particularly those with vermicompost (T3, T5, T11), reflecting improved nutrient availability and photosynthetic efficiency, as supported by Singh. Yield attributes, including effective tillers (T11, 317 tillers/m²), grains per spike (T12, 52), test weight (T10/T11, 44 g), and grain yield (T12, 47.5 q/ha), were significantly enhanced by INM, with vermicompost outperforming FYM due to better nutrient synchronization and soil health benefits. These findings advocate for INM, particularly with vermicompost at 25-75% RDN substitution, as a sustainable strategy to optimize wheat productivity under late-sown conditions, balancing yield goals with long-term soil fertility and environmental sustainability.

Conclusion

The findings of this study clearly demonstrate that integrated nutrient management (INM), especially when incorporating vermicompost, significantly enhances wheat performance under late-sown conditions. INM not only improves crop establishment, growth, and yield but also fosters sustainable agricultural practices by maintaining soil health and fertility. Treatments with higher proportions of vermicompost (such as T11 and T10) resulted in markedly better plant populations, tiller density, and yield attributes compared to conventional practices, highlighting the value of organic amendments in mitigating abiotic stresses and nutrient deficiencies. Vermicompost, in particular, proved superior to farmyard manure (FYM), offering enhanced nutrient availability and microbial activity, which translated into improved plant vigor and productivity. However, the study also underscores the importance of balanced nutrient inputs, as excessive inorganic nitrogen can negatively impact plant establishment and growth. Overall, adopting INM strategies that substitute 25-75% of recommended nitrogen with vermicompost not only optimizes wheat yields under challenging late-sown conditions but also supports long-term soil health and environmental sustainability. These results advocate for a broader adoption of INM with vermicompost as a cornerstone of sustainable wheat production systems.

Acknowledgement

The author would like to School of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences at Shobhit Institute of Engineering and Technology Deemed-to-be University), Meerut, India, for their technical support.

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