Exploring farmers’ perceptions and adoption of orobanche management methods

Introduction

Parasites, the unwanted guests in the cultivated crops get their nutrition by stealing it from host plants. Notably, Orobanche is recognized as the most notorious and harmful parasite, primarily affecting the roots of crops that hold economic value. Orobanche, commonly known as broomrape, poses a considerable challenge to various legume crops such as faba bean (Vicia faba), pea (Pisum sativum), lentil (Lens culinaris), and chickpea (Cicer arietinum), as well as to commercial crops. According to the findings of Das (2019) [3] , the annual impact of orobanche infestation on crops can range from complete loss (100%) to no damage (0%), with total crop losses globally estimated to be between $1.3 billion and $2.6 billion. Orobanche species display high diversity regarding their host range. However, the infection severity varies among different crops across regions. In the field study conducted by Shekhawat et al., (2012) [16] reported that there is 28% reduction in the seed yield of Indian mustard which was due to parasite infestation and caused great damage across the world. According to Akhter et al., (2018) [1] a significant yield drop of around 15-49% has been recorded in the mustard was noticed. As already mentioned above, this parasite infestation is not an exception in commercial crops among which, particularly Orobanche cernua is problem in tobacco. Reports also showed that it is a major biotic production constraint to Indian tobacco. Punia (2014) [11] estimated that in Andhra Pradesh, 50% area under tobacco (40,000 ha) was infested with broomrape and caused 50% crop loss. In Karnataka, 90% area under tobacco was infested with this parasite which was accounted to 50-60% yield deficit. India has emerged as the second largest tobacco producer (761 M kg) after China (2135 M kg) globally (FAOSTAT 2020) [4] . The export of tobacco and tobacco products from India have increased from Rs 6058 crores in 2015-16 to Rs 6305 crores in 2020-21 (Tobacco Board, 2021) [20] . Tobacco specifically FCV (Flue Cured Virginia) is boon to farming community. Among different crops grown, farmers reap riches in cultivation of tobacco in specific regions of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka as these are the major FCV tobacco growing regions of the country. There is more feasibility for cultivation of FCV tobacco in these regions which is due to the prevailing demand in the market. Unfortunately, broomrape remain an uncontrolled problem to the tobacco farmers in these two states leading to significant decline in crop yield and distressed crop quality in infested fields. Considering the vital importance of FCV tobacco crop in the www.extensionjournal.com context of profitability to the farming community and high foreign exchange to the national economy, the present study has been carried out with a primary objective of analyzing farmers perception and adoption behaviour with respect to orobanche management in tobacco.

Methodology

The present study used Expost facto research design and random sampling technique is employed in selection of respondents. The study is based on field survey and interaction with FCV tobacco farmers in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. These states were purposively selected as these are the major FCV tobacco growing regions of the country. The primary data was collected from 30 randomly selected FCV (Flue Cured Virginia) tobacco farmers in each of the two tobacco growing regions viz., Southern Light Soils (SLS) & Southern Black Soils (SBS) in Prakasam district of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka Light Soils (KLS) region in Mysuru district of Karnataka thus making total sample size of 60 respondents. To analyze the perceptions opined by the respondents in orobanche management, a suitable semi structured interview schedule was developed based on the discussion with experts, farmers and through data from relevant review of literature. The data collected were coded, tabulated and to investigate the perception and adoption behaviour, Friedman's non-parametric test and correlation analysis was employed for analysis.

Results and Discussion Farmers Perception on Orobanche in FCV Tobacco

To measure the perception level of farmers, a set of statements were identified. Friedman's test was carried out and the results presented in Table 1 revealed that the mean ranks under each region were different. Perusal of Table 1 showed that in SLS & SBS regions, farmers opined that orobanche menace is more prominent in FCV tobacco cultivated in black soils (mean rank 4.95) followed by infestation is common in tobacco fields (mean rank 3.75). Das et al., (2019) [3] stated that soil type usually has no influence on germination, but Orobanche is believed to cause more damage in soils with low fertility. Punia (2014) [11] also observed that this parasite has the tendency to thrive well in soils having coarse texture, high pH, low nitrogen status, poor water holding capacity and where the crop cultivation is either rainfed or dependent on sprinkler irrigation. Regarding infestation, tobacco farmers believe that the extent of damage is unpredictable. Systematic studies conducted by Das et al., (2019) [3] on various orobanche species reported the yield loss in faba bean (12-40%), sunflower (20-55%), tomato (30-55%), tobacco (25-50%), chilli (80%), mustard and potato (20-40%), muskmelon and watermelon (20-70%). KLS farmers strongly felt that drought condition triggers the parasite for germination (mean rank 4.67) followed by persistent nature (mean rank 4.52). Studies conducted by Shah et al., (2022) [15] on climate change effects on weed growth showed that that as per farmers' response, the parthenium was the most (82%) responsive invasive weed to climate change. Malarkodi et al., (2017) [9] also reported that increase in atmospheric temperatures could also trigger some weeds like which weed and the crop weed competition could also be influenced by varying magnitude of response to the rising temperature and floral reproductive ability of weeds. Persistent nature of the parasite is another major concern for the farmers. This is supported with the study conducted by Puzzilli (1983) [12] revealed that the extremely small seeds produced by the orobanche in vast numbers has seed longevity in fields is up to 13 years. Ghosh et al., (2021) [5] also made similar study on the aspects of perception analysis of the respondents.

Farmers practices in Orobanche management

Farmers in the study area follow different management practices to control the parasite which are economical and feasible. The most followed practices in the two regions were identified and analyzed by using Friedman's test and the results were depicted below (Table 2). Results from Table 2 revealed that SLS&SBS region tobacco farmers follow physical removal of the parasite before it flowers (mean rank 6.36) and deep summer ploughing (mean rank 6.26). Farmers believe that clean cultivation followed by physical removal before flowering was commonly practiced for orobanche control. At the same time, weeding of the parasites is not very promising in heavily infested areas, time-consuming, tedious and can cause injuries to the main plant root system. Various research reports suggested different strategies for orobanche species control. Among which deep ploughing was proposed for Orobanche ramosa in tomato and Orobanche cernua in tobacco. The same results were also confirmed by Qasem (2021) [13] mentioned that a depth of 40-50 cm deep tillage reduced Orobanche by 80-90% in three year-period in broad beans. It is also observed that some farmers in the study area removing orobanche after flowering stage (mean rank 5.09). This is due to labour unavailability for the operations and lack of awareness of the farmer that a single parasite plant can release lakhs of seeds which are known to www.extensionjournal.com remain viable for many decades in the soil. A review conducted by Habimana et al., (2014) [6] reported the similar findings. Majority of the respondents from KLS region follow inundation to the tobacco field (mean rank 6.82) followed by crop rotation (mean rank 6.17) to control orobanche. But, under rainfed cultivation, water scarcity could not permit this method. Punia (2014) [11] stated that less damage of the parasitic weed has been observed in mustard grown under flooded irrigation as compared to sprinkler system or on conserved moisture as the seeds of the parasite do not survive on extended periods of inundation. This is similar to the findings of Qasem (2021) [13] observed that water lodging inhibited orobanche emergence when applied for more than 6 weeks duration. Besides, KLS farmers follow crop rotation with ragi in tobacco growing fields to control orobanche. A field study confirmed by Habimana et al., (2014) [6] that crop sequence of onion-onion-onion/tomato and/or onion-alfalfa-alfalfa-tomato decreased Orobanche infestation by 90-95 per cent and the yield of tomato was increased by 60 per cent.

Adoption Behaviour of FCV Tobacco Farmers in Orobanche Management

Information on adoption level of farmers regarding parasite management was collected with the help of interview schedule. These responses are presented below (Table 3). The data regarding the level of adoption have been presented in Table 3. It is evident that low level of adoption was observed among farmers in adoption of parasite management practices. Few farmers still not aware about the importance of orobanche management as they feel in case of insects, pests and diseases. Study conducted by Singh et al., (2018) [18] found that majority of the respondents had medium extent of adoption of integrated weed management practices. It is observed from the study area that majority of the farmers do not know the biology of these parasites. Some even think that they reproduce by rhizomes and stolons, others have never seen tiny seeds produced by these parasites, ignore the existence of a subterranean growth phase and therefore resulted in low level of adoption. Besides, small holder are the most affected by the orobanche problem because they have limited ways and means of controlling it. According to Hema et al., (2021) [7] average own land size of tobacco farmers is 3-5 acres in the study area of KLS is due to small land holdings.

Correlation between Socio-personal Characteristics of Respondents and Adoption

The association of nine independent variables were analyzed with the dependent variable viz., adoption behaviour and the results were displayed in Table 4. 4 enlists the adoption behaviour of farmers to nine attributes. The association between extent of adoption and selected independent variables was worked out in terms of Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r values). The results indicated that operational land holding, and annual income had significant correlation at 1 per cent with the adoption of management practices. Annual income is one of the factors which affect the adoption level of farmers. Farmers with more annual income are expected to be early and fast adopters due to their risk bearing ability. In the investigation carried out by Hussain et al., (2009) [8] that majority of farmers having encouraging levels of farm size (60%), surplus income (80%) attained high level of technology adoption behaviour. In contrast, Singhal et al., (2017) [19] estimated that size of land holding had no effect in influencing the adoption behaviour of the farmers. It is also well apparent from the findings that cosmopolitan nature, mass media exposure, extension contact and participation in extension activities exhibited significant correlation at 5 per cent with the adoption of management practices. Cosmopolitan nature gives an opportunity to the farmers to widen their scope to gain better knowledge, frequent contact for interaction, proper platform to discuss their problems This result was in accordance with the findings of Singh et al., (2016) [17] and Prajapati et al., (2015) [10] . It is also evident that age, family size and education of the respondents had non-significant association with the adoption. A study undertaken by Rakesh et al., (2022) [14] on adoption behaviour stated that the age of the respondents was found negatively, and size of land holding was positively non-significant. Anusha et al., (2021) [2] also made similar attempt on the correlation analysis of the respondents.

Conclusion

The present study revealed that orobanche is threatening the livelihood of FCV tobacco farmers in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Perception analysis from the farmers showed that soil type and climate condition are the favourable factors for the orobanche occurrence in FCV tobacco. Although farmers are aware about different management measures; physical removal, dep summer ploughing, inundation to tobacco fields and crop rotation are the most often practices followed by the farmers. Majority of the farmers still not aware about the complete damage caused by the orobanche as they feel in case of insects, pests and www.extensionjournal.com diseases therefore resulted in low level of adoption behavior in its management. The study concluded that operational land holding, annual income cosmopolitan nature, mass media exposure, extension contact and participation in extension activities were found positively and significantly associated with extent of adoption of orobanche management practices by the FCV tobacco farmers.

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