Millets: The wholesome supplement of contemporary times

Introduction

With the increase in global population, food security has become a growing concern. Ensuring adequate nutrition for everyone requires not only improved cultivation practices and genetic advancements but also a focus on crop diversification. In this context, millets emerge as a wholesome and sustainable choice. These nutrient-rich crops are not only vital for addressing food and nutritional security but are also hardy and resilient, capable of thriving in harsh environmental conditions. Despite their exceptional climate resilience and Promoting millet consumption is crucial to boosting their demand as food, animal feed, and industrial raw materials, which can be achieved through targeted policies and awareness campaigns.

Classification of millets

Generally, millets can be classified in two major classes (Table: 1) basically based on their grain size, e.g., Major millets and minor millets. [22,42] . In addition to these macronutrients, it is rich in dietary fiber, ranging between 8 and 11.3 g/100 g and includes vital micronutrients such as vitamins and trace minerals, which play a critical role in enhancing gut health and metabolism. Among all millet varieties, pearl millet is distinguished by its high protein content, surpassed only by foxtail and proso millet. It also has the highest fat content, dietary fiber and energy value, making it a valuable food source for malnourished populations in Africa and Asia (Hassan et al., 2021; Satyavathi et al., 2021) [22,51] . Despite its numerous benefits, pearl millet contains antinutritional factors like polyphenols, tannins and phytic acid, which range from 354 to 796 mg/g. These compounds can limit nutrient bioavailability. Additionally, goitrogenic polyphenols, such as C-glycosylflavones (C-GFs) like glucosyl orientin, glucosyl vitexin and vitexin, are also present and have been associated with iodine deficiency and goiter (Boncompagni et al., 2018) [9] . On the positive side, pearl millet is a rich source of bioactive compounds that exhibit antioxidant, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, hypocholesterolemic and hypoglycemic properties. However, the flour of pearl millet (PMF) is prone to rancidity due to the presence of an active lipase enzyme, which hydrolyzes glycerides into free fatty acids, especially under moist and oxidative conditions (Pawase et al., 2019) [41] . To enhance the shelf life and stability of pearl millet flour, various processing methods such as roasting, fermentation, germination, microwaving and hydrothermal treatments have been developed. These methods also improve the flour's functionality and nutritional profile. Pearl millet is widely used in both traditional products (e.g., raabadi, chapatti and fura) and modern innovations such as bakery items, pasta and extruded foods (Ali et al., 2023; Jalgaonkar et al., 2022) [3,26] .

Sorghum: Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) is recognized as a highly nutritious cereal crop, cultivated in India, the United States, and several African nations. The grain serves as a major food source in Africa and India and as a vital livestock feed in developed countries. Sorghum contains 8-18% protein, 70-80% carbohydrates and approximately 6.7 g of dietary fiber per 100 g, along with various essential minerals. Its primary carbohydrate component is starch, located mainly in the endosperm and partially in the pericarp, which provides slow-digesting energy suitable for sustained activities (Huang et al., 2022) [24] . Additionally, it contains fructosan, a trisaccharide contributing to its carbohydrate profile. The protein content of sorghum comprises albumins, globulins, glutelins and kafirins, with the latter being hydrophobic and protease-resistant, providing structural integrity and resilience against environmental stresses (Mohajeri et al., 2015) [34] . Sorghum is also gluten-free, making it suitable for individuals with gluten intolerance. Its lipid profile includes linoleic acid (18:2), oleic acid (18:1), palmitic acid (16:0), linolenic acid (18:3) and stearic acid (18:0), with linoleic and oleic acids occurring in high proportions (Serrano et al., 2023) [51] . Rich in dietary fiber, sorghum supports digestive health, regulates blood sugar levels, lowers cholesterol and promotes satiety. It also provides B-complex vitamins, such as thiamine and riboflavin, essential for metabolism, along with niacin for improved digestion, skin health and neurofunction. Essential minerals like phosphorus, magnesium, iron and copper contribute to bone health, red blood cell production, nerve function and overall well-being. Trace amounts of zinc, calcium and potassium further enhance its nutritional profile. Moreover, sorghum contains unique antioxidants, including 3-deoxy anthocyanins, which help reduce inflammation and may lower cancer risks. The grain's nutritional content varies based on variety, cultivation practices and processing methods, with grain sorghum generally containing higher protein and lipid levels than sweet sorghum (Olawole et al., 2019) [38] . These attributes make sorghum a versatile and nutrient-dense addition to a balanced diet.

Finger millet: Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is a highly nutritious cereal, rich in calcium, minerals, and dietary fiber. Carbohydrates form a significant component of ragi, ranging between 72% and 79.5% (Pore & Magar, 1979) [44] . Starch constitutes the majority of these carbohydrates, ranging from 59.4% to 70.2% (Joshi & Katoch, 1990; Bhatt., 2003; Wankhede et al., 1979) [27,8,59] . Additionally, residual amylose accounts for 15% to 20%, while amylopectin makes up 80%-85% of (the starch ( [44,5,36] . Nonstarch polysaccharides contribute 20%-30% of the total carbohydrates in ragi (Nirmala et al., 2000) [36] . The high fiber content in millets, including ragi, is associated with hypoglycemic effects due to the slow absorption and assimilation of complex carbohydrates, leading to reduced postprandial blood sugar levels (Geetha & Easwaran, 1990) [20] . Protein is the second most abundant component in ragi, ranging from 5.6% to 12.7%. Approximately 71% of its protein is digestible (Ravindran, 1991; Rao, 1994; Mbithi-Mwikya et al., 2000) [47,45,33] . Essential amino acids, which play a crucial role in protein functionality, constitute 44.7% of the total amino acids in finger millet (Mbithi-Mwikya et al., 2000) [33] . The amino acid profile of ragi is well-balanced, with a high essential-to-non-essential amino acid ratio. Except for lysine, the essential amino acid content exceeds the recommended values for children aged 2-5 years. Unique among cereals, ragi contains tryptophan, along with balanced levels of valine, threonine and lysine (Ravindran, 1992) [46] . It also includes proline, valine, isoleucine, leucine and phenylalanine in higher proportions compared to arginine and glycine. Significant protein fractions include albumins and globulins. Ragi has a notable fat content, varying between 1.2% and 2.1%, depending on the variety (Patil et al., 2023) [3] . Its lipid composition includes free lipids, bound lipids, structural lipids and phospholipids. Key fatty acids include oleic acid, palmitic acid and linoleic acid, with unsaturated fatty acids comprising 74.4% of the total lipid content, while saturated fatty acids account for 25.6% (Sridhar & Lakshminarayana, 1994) [54] . Finger millet also provides essential nutrients, including isoleucine (4.4 g), leucine (9.5 g), methionine (3.1 g) and phenylalanine (5.2 g), which are scarce in other starchy grains (Dykes & Rooney, 2006) [17] . Moreover, it is a good source of minerals such as calcium, iron, potassium, magnesium and zinc, as well as B vitamins like niacin, pyridoxine and folic acid (Hulse et al., 1980) [25] .

Proso millet: Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) is a nutritionally rich cereal with significant health benefits. It is a valuable source of macronutrients, including proteins and dietary fibers, as well as essential micronutrients such as magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and trace minerals (Pilat et al., 2016) [43] . Proso millet proteins play a critical role in cholesterol metabolism, improving HDL cholesterol levels and insulin sensitivity, as highlighted by Park et al. (2011) [28] . These properties make it beneficial for managing cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) and diabetes. Additionally, it contains phytochemicals like phenolic acids, polyphenols, and flavonoids that exhibit antioxidant and antiinflammatory properties (Chandrasekara & Shahidi, 2011; Bora et al., 2018) [14,10] . The high antioxidant capacity of proso millet, attributed to its phenolic acids such as ferulic, syringic, and chlorogenic acids, protects against oxidative stress and chronic diseases, including cancer (Zhang et al., 2014; Aburai et al., 2007) [62,1] . Studies indicate its dietary fibers enhance satiety, improve gut health, and reduce the risk of lifestyle diseases like obesity and breast cancer (Cade et al., 2007; Fardet, 2010) [11,18] . Furthermore, it has been shown to reduce triglycerides and C-reactive protein levels in hyperlipidemic models, demonstrating its potential in combating hyperlipidemia and associated risks (Lee et al., 2010) [31] . Proso millet is also known for its nutrigenomic effects, particularly in producing short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and improving skeletal health through oligosaccharides acting as prebiotics (Asharani et al., 2009; Amadou et al., 2013) [6,4] . Its liver-protective properties were demonstrated in studies where proso millet protein suppressed liver injury caused by D-galactosamine (Nishizawa et al., 2002) [37] . Collectively, proso millet stands as a nutritionally superior cereal with vast potential for enhancing human health and addressing global nutritional challenges.

Foxtail millet: Foxtail millet (Setaria italica), a highly nutritious and underutilized crop, surpasses commonly consumed cereals like wheat and rice in nutritional value. It is a rich source of essential nutrients, including carbohydrates, proteins (10%-15%), dietary fiber (6%-8%), crude fat (7%-8%) and minerals such as iron, calcium and zinc (Sharma & Niranjan, 2017; Muthamilarasan et al., 2016) [52,35] . Foxtail millet contains significant amounts of essential amino acids, including methionine and cysteine, as well as sulfur-containing amino acids, which are crucial for human health. Its resistant starch content, ranging from 13% to 15%, makes it an ideal choice for diabetic individuals. Chen et al. (2013) [15] and Yang et al. (2013) [60] conducted extensive analyses of foxtail millet, reporting crude fat content between 4.4 and 7.3 g/100 g, total carbohydrates ranging from 65.59 to 83.8 g/100 g, and protein content varying from 9.5 to 20.58 g/100 g. Additionally, its glutenfree nature and slightly higher fat content contribute to its nutritional superiority. Foxtail millet also contains polyphenols, phenolic acids, tannins and flavonoids, which provide antioxidant properties and support the immune system (Devi et al., 2011) [16] . Moreover, its lipids, including linoleic acid and tocopherols, enhance its health benefits (Liang et al., 2010) [32] . Collectively, these attributes highlight foxtail millet as a sustainable and healthpromoting cereal grain with the potential to address global nutritional challenges.

Barnyard millet: Barnyard millet (Echinochloa spp.) is a nutritionally superior grain compared to other major and minor millets, offering a rich composition of dietary fiber, protein, iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium, fat, vitamins and essential amino acids (Singh et [53,49,12] . It has a lower carbohydrate content (51.5-62.0 g/100 g) compared to other millets, making it a favorable choice for managing blood sugar levels (Saleh et al., 2013) [49] . With crude fiber content ranging from 8.1% to 16.3%, barnyard millet promotes a slower release of sugars into the bloodstream, beneficial for glycemic control (Ugare et al., 2014) [57] . Research indicates that resistant starch in barnyard millet can help lower blood glucose levels, serum cholesterol, and triglycerides, as demonstrated in animal studies (Kumari & Thayumanavan, 1998) [29] . Clinical studies have also confirmed its low glycemic index in patients with type 2 diabetes (Ugare et al., 2014) [57] . The protein content (11.2%-12.7%) is notably higher than that of other cereals and in barnyard millet the iron content (15.6-18.6 mg/100 g) is significantly elevated, making it ideal for addressing iron deficiency and anemia, particularly in women (Saleh et al., 2013; Renganathan et al., 2017; Vanniarajan et al., 2018) [49,48,58] . Additionally, the lower phytate content (3.30-3.70 mg/100 g), which decreases further upon dehulling, enhances mineral bioavailability (Panwar et al., 2016) [39] . The grain also contains high levels of polyphenols and carotenoids, which provide antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties, contributing to its ethnomedical uses in managing various health conditions (Kim et al., 2011; Panwar et al., 2016) [28,39] . These nutritional and healthpromoting attributes position barnyard millet as an excellent food choice for overall physical and nutritional well-being.

Kodo millet: Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) is recognized as a nutrient-dense cereal grain, often referred to as a "nutria-cereal" due to its rich composition of vitamins, minerals, and essential phytochemicals. It is particularly abundant in essential amino acids, including lysine, threonine, valine, and sulfur-containing amino acids like methionine and cysteine, though it is deficient in tryptophan (Ravindran, 1992; Antony et al., 1996) [46,5] . The grain is an excellent source of vitamin B3, vitamin B6, and folic acid, along with essential minerals such as calcium, potassium, magnesium, and zinc. The protein content of Kodo millet is approximately 8.3%, with glutelin as the primary protein component (Sudharshana et al., 1988) [55] . It contains a notably high crude fiber content of 9%, significantly exceeding that of wheat, which contains just 1.2% (Devi et al., 2011) [16] . Kodo millet provides about 353 kcal of energy per 100 grams, with its carbohydrate content accounting for 66.6%, fat content at 1.4%, mineral content at 2.4% and ash content at 2% (Chandel et al., 2014a) [12] . Furthermore, the iron content in Kodo millet ranges from 25.86 to 39.60 ppm, making it a valuable source of dietary iron (Chandel et al., 2014b) [13] . These nutritional properties highlight Kodo millet's potential in improving diet quality and addressing nutrient deficiencies.

Little millet: Little millet (Panicum sumatrense) is a nutritious grain with several health advantages, making it an ideal supplement to a well-balanced diet. It is a good source of macronutrients, with about 7.7 grams of protein and 7.6 grams of dietary fiber per 100 grams, which help with muscle maintenance and digestive health (Sushmita et al., 2020) [56] . Little millet also contains vital minerals such as iron (9.3 mg/100 g), calcium (17 mg/100 g), phosphorus (250 mg/kg), and magnesium (118 mg/kg), all of which are required for oxygen transport, bone strength, and numerous metabolic activities (Kumari et al., 2022) [30] . This millet is especially high in B vitamins, particularly niacin (vitamin B3), which promotes energy metabolism and general health (Gahalawat et al., 2024) [19] . It also includes phenolic compounds and flavonoids with antioxidant capabilities, which serve to counteract oxidative stress and protect the body from chronic illnesses. Its low glycemic index and high fiber content make it ideal for controlling blood sugar, lowering the risk of diabetes, and aiding digestion.

Conclusion

Millets are becoming increasingly popular in diets, which is in line with current initiatives to adopt sustainable, healthier lifestyles. Because of their many culinary uses, millets are a popular option for those who are concerned about their health and support sustainable eating. They are emerging as a key component of initiatives to solve global nutritional issues and promote ecologically sustainable farming systems as awareness of their advantages rises. People may improve their own health and the health of the earth by including millets in their regular meals, guaranteeing future generations a more nourishing and sustainable future. Despite its numerous health advantages, bioavailability of nutrients and the presence of anti-nutritional substances remain significant issues of millets that should be addressed via more investigation. Last but not least to promote longterm health and nutritional benefit, this study emphasizes the need of reintroducing millets into modern diets as a functional food and advocates for their inclusion in dietary guidelines and food policy. Achieving this will require increased investment in millet research and support comparable to that provided for wheat and rice.

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